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Resumen
El interés de la autoestima durante la adolescencia es fundamental, ya que promover una autoestima positiva y reducir el impacto de la autoestima negativa, posibilita el desarrollo óptimo de gran parte de las experiencias escolares, personales y de bienestar general. El presente estudio tuvo como objetivo evaluar las evidencias de validez y fiabilidad de la Escala de Autoestima (Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale) en estudiantes españoles y comprobar si el género, la edad, el curso académico y el tipo de centro son determinantes para su desarrollo. Participaron un total de 698 estudiantes de Educación Secundaria Obligatoria (ESO) que se agruparon en dos muestras aleatorias (muestra 1: 364 alumnos, M=12.57; DT= .49 y muestra 2: 334 alumnos, M=14.62; DT= .48). Los resultados identificaron una estructura factorial de dos factores (autoestima positiva y autoestima negativa) (χ2/gl= 2.938; CFI= .948; NNFI= .924; SRMR = .045; RMSEA= .075), con una consistencia interna elevada (α = .853). Asimismo, los análisis de multivarianza mostraron que los adolescentes presentan una mayor autoestima positiva si son de género masculino, cursan primero, segundo o tercero de ESO y estudian en centros concertados, mientras que exhiben una alta autoestima negativa los adolescentes de género masculino que cursan primero de ESO con edades inferiores a los 13 años. La escala Rosenberg ha demostrado tener propiedades psicométricas adecuadas para ser utilizada en estudiantes de educación secundaria de España.
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Detalles del artículo
Referencias
- Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-215. 10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191
- Bleidorn, W., Arslan, R. C., Denissen, J. J. A., Rentfrow, P. J., Gebauer, J. E., Potter, J., & Gosling, S. D. (2016). Age and gender differences in self-esteem-A cross-cultural window. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 111(3), 396–410. 10.1037/pspp0000078
- Branden, N. (1969). The Psychology of Self-Esteem. Bantam.
- Brechan I., & Kvalem I. L. (2015). Relationship between body dissatisfaction and disordered eating: Mediating role of self-esteem and depression. Eating Behaviors, 17, 49-58. 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2014.12.008
- Butler, R. J., & Gasson, S. L. (2005). Self esteem/self concept scales for children and adolescents: A review. Child and Adolescent mental health, 10(4), 190-201. 10.1111/j.1475-3588.2005.00368.x
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental. (2020). Banco de instrumentos y metodologías en Salud Mental. https://bi.cibersam.es/busqueda-de-instrumentos/ficha?Id=206
- Chung, J., Hutteman, R., Van Aken, M. A. G., & Denissen, J. J. A. (2017). High, low, and in between: Self-esteem development from middle childhood to young adulthood. Journal of Research in Personality, 70, 122-133. 10.1016/j.jrp.2017.07.001
- Coopersmith, S. (1967). The antecedents of self-esteem. W. H. Freeman & Co. 10.1002/bs.3830150212
- Covington, M. V. (1992). Making the grade: A self-worth perspective on motivation and school reform. Cambridge University Press.
- Cvencek, D., Fryberg, S. A., Covarrubias, R., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2018). Self‐concepts, self‐esteem, and academic achievement of minority and majority north American elementary school children. Child development, 89(4), 1099-1109. 10.1111/cdev.12802
- Donnellan, M. B., Trzesniewski, K. H., & Robins, R. W. (2011). Self-esteem: Enduring issues and controversies. En T. Chamorro-Premuzic, S. von Stumm, & A. Furnham (Eds.), The Wiley-Blackwell handbook of individual differences (pp. 718-746). Wiley-Blackwell.
- Echeburúa, E. (1995). Evaluación y tratamiento de la fobia social. Martínez Roca.
- Franck, E., De Raedt, R., Barbez, C., & Rosseel, Y. (2008). Psychometric properties of the Dutch Rosenberg self-esteem scale. Psychologica Belgica, 48(1), 25-35. 10.5334/pb-48-1-25
- González, I. T. M., Ramírez, V. E., & Martínez, J. W. (2012). Nivel de autoestima de adolescentes escolarizados en zona rural de Pereira, Colombia. Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría, 41(3), 485-495. 10.1016/S0034-7450(14)60024-X
- Guay, F., Larose, S., & Boivin, M. (2004). Academic self-concept and educational attainment level: A ten-year longitudinal study. Self and Identity, 3, 53-68. 10.1080/13576500342000040
- Harter, S. (1988). Manual for the Self-Perception Profile for Adolescent. University of Denver.
- Helmreich, R., & Stapp, J. (1974). Short forms of the Texas Social Behavior Inventory (TSBI), an objective measure of self-esteem. Bulleting of the Psychonomic Society, 4, 473-475.
- Hensley, W. E., & Roberts, M. K. (1976). Dimensions of Rosenburg’s self-esteem scale. Psychological Reports, 38(2), 583-584.
- Huaytalla, K. P. C., Vega, S. R., & Soncco, J. J. (2016). Riesgo de adicción a redes sociales, autoestima y autocontrol en estudiantes de secundaria. Revista Científica de Ciencias de la Salud, 9(1), 9-15.
- Hyland P., Boduszek D., Dhingra K., Shevlin M., & Egan A. (2014). A bifactor approach to modelling the Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 66, 188-192. 10.1016/j.paid.2014.03.034
- Janis, I. L., & Field, P. B. (1959). Sex differences and factors related to persuasibility. En C. I. Hovaland, & I. L. Janis (Eds.), Personality and persuasibility (pp. 55-68). Yale University Press.
- Kernis, M. H. (2003). Toward a Conceptualization of Optimal Self-Esteem. Psychological Inquiry, 14(1), 1-26. 10.1207/S15327965PLI1401_01
- Leary, M. R., & Baumeister, R. F. (2000). The nature and function of self-esteem: Sociometer theory. En M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology, Vol. 32 (pp. 1-62). Academic Press. 10.1016/S0065-2601(00)80003-9
- Lima, T., & Souza, L. (2019). Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: Method Effect and Gender Invariance. Psico-USF, 24(3), 517-528. 10.1590/1413-82712019240309
- Magee, W., & Upenieks, L. (2019). Gender differences in self-esteem, unvarnished self-evaluation, future orientation, self-enhancement and self-derogation in a US national sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 149, 66-77. 10.1016/j.paid.2019.05.016
- Mallmann, C. L., de Macedo, C. S., & Zanatta, T. (2018). Cyberbullying y estratégias de afrontamiento en adolescentes del sur de Brasil. Acta Colombiana de Psicología, 21(1), 25-34. 10.14718/ACP.2018.21.1.2
- Marcionetti, J., & Rossier, J. (2019). A Longitudinal Study of Relations Among Adolescents’ Self-Esteem, General Self-Efficacy, Career Adaptability, and Life Satisfaction. Journal of Career Development, 48(4), 475-490. 10.1177/0894845319861691
- Marsh, H. W. (1986). Global self-esteem: Its relation to specific facets of self-concept and their importance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1224-1236. 10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1224
- Marsh, H. W. (1992). Self-Description Questionnaire (SDQ) II: A theoretical and empirical basis for the measurement of multiple dimensions of adolescent self-concept: An interim test manual and a research monograph. University of Western Sydney, Faculty of Education.
- Marsh, H. W., Scalas, L. F., & Nagengast, B. (2010). Longitudinal tests of competing factor structures for the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: Traits, ephemeral artifacts, and stable response styles. Psychological Assessment, 22(2), 366–381. 10.1037/a0019225
- Marshall, S. L., Parker, P. D., Ciarrochi, J., & Heaven, P. C. L. (2014). Is self-esteem cause or consequence of social support? A four-year longitudinal study. Child Development, 85, 1275-1291. 10.1111/cdev.12176
- McKay, M. T., Boduszek, D., & Harvey, S. A. (2014). The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: A bifactor answer to a two-factor question? Journal of Personality Assessment, 96, 654-660. 10.1080/00223891.2014.923436
- O’Mara, A. J., Marsh, H. W., Craven, R. G., & Debus, R. L. (2006). Do Self-Concept Interventions Make a Difference? A Synergistic Blend of Construct Validation and Meta-Analysis. Educational Psychologist, 41(3), 181-206. 10.1207/s15326985ep4103_4
- Orth, U. (2016). The development of self-esteem. En J. Specht (Ed). Personality Development Across the Lifespan. Elsevier.
- Orth, U., Erol, R. Y., & Luciano, E. C. (2018). Development of self-esteem from age 4 to 94 years: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological bulletin, 144(10), 1045-1080. 10.1037/bul0000161
- Orth, U., & Robins, R. W. (2014). The development of self-esteem. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(5), 381-387. 10.1177/0963721414547414
- Reina, M. C. (2017). Percepciones de autoevaluación: Autoestima, autoeficacia y satisfacción vital en la adolescencia. Psychology, Society, & Education, 2(1), 55-69. 10.25115/psye.v2i1.435
- Reise, S. P., Kim, D. S., Mansolf, M., & Widaman, K. F. (2016). Is the bifactor model a better model or is it just better at modeling implausible responses? Application of iteratively reweighted least squares to the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Multivariate behavioral research, 51(6), 818-838. 10.1080/00273171.2016.1243461
- Resett, S. (2018). Estabilidad de ser victimizado, ser agresor, problemas emocionales y de conductas en adolescentes. ¿Estabilidad o cambio? Interdisciplinaria. Revista de Psicología y Ciencias Afines, 35(2), 341-362. 10.16888/interd.2018.35.2.6
- Rhodewalt, F., & Tragakis, M. W. (2003). Self-esteem and self-regulation: Toward optimal studies of self-esteem. Psychological Inquiry, 14(1), 66-70.
- Robins, R. W., Hendin, H. M., & Trzesniewski, K. H. (2001). Measuring Global Self-Esteem: Construct Validation of a Single-Item Measure and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(2), 151-161. 10.1177/0146167201272002
- Rodríguez, C., & Caño, A. (2012). Autoestima en la adolescencia: Análisis y estrategias de intervención. Psychology and Psychological Therapy, 12, 389-403.
- Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton University Press.
- Rosenberg, M. (1986). Self-concept from middle childhood through adolescence. En J. Suls, & A. G. Greenwald (Eds.), Psychological perspectives on the self (pp. 107-135). Lawrence Erlbaum.
- Schoeps, K., Peris-Hernández, M., Garaigordobil, M., & Montoya-Castilla, I. (2020). Risk factors for being a victim of online grooming in adolescents. Psicothema, 31(4), 1-9. 10.7334/psicothema2019.179
- Schunk, D. H., Pintrich, P. R., Meece, J. L., & Pintrich, P. R. (2008). Motivation in education: Theory, research, and applications. Pearson/Merrill Prentice Hall.
- Shevlin, M. E., Bunting, B. P., & Lewis, C. A. (1995). Confirmatory factor analysis of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Psychological Reports, 76(3), 707-710. 10.2466/pr0.1995.76.3.707
- Sigüenza, W.G., Quezada, E., & Reyes, M. L. (2019). Autoestima en la adolescencia media y tardía. Revista Espacios, 40(15), 19.
- Simón, M. M., Molero, M. M., Pérez-Fuentes M. C., Gázquez, J. J., Barragán, A. B., & Martos, A. (2017). Análisis de la relación existente entre el apoyo social percibido, la autoestima global y la autoeficacia general. European Journal of Health Research (EJHR), 3(2), 137-149. 10.30552/ejhr.v3i2.71
- Sinclair, S. J., Blais, M. A., Gansler, D. A., Sandberg, E., Bistis, K., & LoCicero, A. (2010). Psychometric properties of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: Overall and across demographic groups living within the United States. Evaluation & the health professions, 33(1), 56-80. 10.1177/0163278709356187
- Tafarodi, R. W., & Swann, W. B. (1995). Self-liking and self-competence as dimensions of global self-esteem: Initial validation of a measure. Journal of Personality Assessment, 65, 322-342.
- Trzesniewski, K. H., Donnellan, M. B., Moffitt, T. E., Robins, R. W., Poulton, R., & Caspi, A. (2006). Low self-esteem during adolescence predicts poor health, criminal behavior, and limited economic prospects during adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 42(2), 381-390. 10.1037/0012-1649.42.2.381
- Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2001). Age and birth cohort differences in selfesteem: A cross temporal meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5(4), 321-344. 10.1207/S15327957PSPR0504_3
- Ul-Haq, M. A. (2016). Association between socio-demographic background and self-esteem of university students. Psychiatric Quarterly, 87(4), 755-762. 10.1007/s11126-016-9423-5
- Ventura-León, J., Caycho-Rodriguez, T., Barboza-Palomino, M., & Salas, G. (2018). Evidencias psicométricas de la Escala de Autoestima de Rosenberg en adolescentes Limeños. Revista Interamericana de Psicología, 52(1), 44-60. 10.30849/rip/ijp.v52i1.363
- Vernon, M. E., Green, J. A., & Frothingham, T. E. (1983). Teenage pregnancy: A prospective study of self-esteem and other sociodemographic factors. Pediatrics, 72(5), 632-635.
Referencias
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-215. 10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191
Bleidorn, W., Arslan, R. C., Denissen, J. J. A., Rentfrow, P. J., Gebauer, J. E., Potter, J., & Gosling, S. D. (2016). Age and gender differences in self-esteem-A cross-cultural window. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 111(3), 396–410. 10.1037/pspp0000078
Branden, N. (1969). The Psychology of Self-Esteem. Bantam.
Brechan I., & Kvalem I. L. (2015). Relationship between body dissatisfaction and disordered eating: Mediating role of self-esteem and depression. Eating Behaviors, 17, 49-58. 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2014.12.008
Butler, R. J., & Gasson, S. L. (2005). Self esteem/self concept scales for children and adolescents: A review. Child and Adolescent mental health, 10(4), 190-201. 10.1111/j.1475-3588.2005.00368.x
Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental. (2020). Banco de instrumentos y metodologías en Salud Mental. https://bi.cibersam.es/busqueda-de-instrumentos/ficha?Id=206
Chung, J., Hutteman, R., Van Aken, M. A. G., & Denissen, J. J. A. (2017). High, low, and in between: Self-esteem development from middle childhood to young adulthood. Journal of Research in Personality, 70, 122-133. 10.1016/j.jrp.2017.07.001
Coopersmith, S. (1967). The antecedents of self-esteem. W. H. Freeman & Co. 10.1002/bs.3830150212
Covington, M. V. (1992). Making the grade: A self-worth perspective on motivation and school reform. Cambridge University Press.
Cvencek, D., Fryberg, S. A., Covarrubias, R., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2018). Self‐concepts, self‐esteem, and academic achievement of minority and majority north American elementary school children. Child development, 89(4), 1099-1109. 10.1111/cdev.12802
Donnellan, M. B., Trzesniewski, K. H., & Robins, R. W. (2011). Self-esteem: Enduring issues and controversies. En T. Chamorro-Premuzic, S. von Stumm, & A. Furnham (Eds.), The Wiley-Blackwell handbook of individual differences (pp. 718-746). Wiley-Blackwell.
Echeburúa, E. (1995). Evaluación y tratamiento de la fobia social. Martínez Roca.
Franck, E., De Raedt, R., Barbez, C., & Rosseel, Y. (2008). Psychometric properties of the Dutch Rosenberg self-esteem scale. Psychologica Belgica, 48(1), 25-35. 10.5334/pb-48-1-25
González, I. T. M., Ramírez, V. E., & Martínez, J. W. (2012). Nivel de autoestima de adolescentes escolarizados en zona rural de Pereira, Colombia. Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría, 41(3), 485-495. 10.1016/S0034-7450(14)60024-X
Guay, F., Larose, S., & Boivin, M. (2004). Academic self-concept and educational attainment level: A ten-year longitudinal study. Self and Identity, 3, 53-68. 10.1080/13576500342000040
Harter, S. (1988). Manual for the Self-Perception Profile for Adolescent. University of Denver.
Helmreich, R., & Stapp, J. (1974). Short forms of the Texas Social Behavior Inventory (TSBI), an objective measure of self-esteem. Bulleting of the Psychonomic Society, 4, 473-475.
Hensley, W. E., & Roberts, M. K. (1976). Dimensions of Rosenburg’s self-esteem scale. Psychological Reports, 38(2), 583-584.
Huaytalla, K. P. C., Vega, S. R., & Soncco, J. J. (2016). Riesgo de adicción a redes sociales, autoestima y autocontrol en estudiantes de secundaria. Revista Científica de Ciencias de la Salud, 9(1), 9-15.
Hyland P., Boduszek D., Dhingra K., Shevlin M., & Egan A. (2014). A bifactor approach to modelling the Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 66, 188-192. 10.1016/j.paid.2014.03.034
Janis, I. L., & Field, P. B. (1959). Sex differences and factors related to persuasibility. En C. I. Hovaland, & I. L. Janis (Eds.), Personality and persuasibility (pp. 55-68). Yale University Press.
Kernis, M. H. (2003). Toward a Conceptualization of Optimal Self-Esteem. Psychological Inquiry, 14(1), 1-26. 10.1207/S15327965PLI1401_01
Leary, M. R., & Baumeister, R. F. (2000). The nature and function of self-esteem: Sociometer theory. En M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology, Vol. 32 (pp. 1-62). Academic Press. 10.1016/S0065-2601(00)80003-9
Lima, T., & Souza, L. (2019). Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: Method Effect and Gender Invariance. Psico-USF, 24(3), 517-528. 10.1590/1413-82712019240309
Magee, W., & Upenieks, L. (2019). Gender differences in self-esteem, unvarnished self-evaluation, future orientation, self-enhancement and self-derogation in a US national sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 149, 66-77. 10.1016/j.paid.2019.05.016
Mallmann, C. L., de Macedo, C. S., & Zanatta, T. (2018). Cyberbullying y estratégias de afrontamiento en adolescentes del sur de Brasil. Acta Colombiana de Psicología, 21(1), 25-34. 10.14718/ACP.2018.21.1.2
Marcionetti, J., & Rossier, J. (2019). A Longitudinal Study of Relations Among Adolescents’ Self-Esteem, General Self-Efficacy, Career Adaptability, and Life Satisfaction. Journal of Career Development, 48(4), 475-490. 10.1177/0894845319861691
Marsh, H. W. (1986). Global self-esteem: Its relation to specific facets of self-concept and their importance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1224-1236. 10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1224
Marsh, H. W. (1992). Self-Description Questionnaire (SDQ) II: A theoretical and empirical basis for the measurement of multiple dimensions of adolescent self-concept: An interim test manual and a research monograph. University of Western Sydney, Faculty of Education.
Marsh, H. W., Scalas, L. F., & Nagengast, B. (2010). Longitudinal tests of competing factor structures for the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: Traits, ephemeral artifacts, and stable response styles. Psychological Assessment, 22(2), 366–381. 10.1037/a0019225
Marshall, S. L., Parker, P. D., Ciarrochi, J., & Heaven, P. C. L. (2014). Is self-esteem cause or consequence of social support? A four-year longitudinal study. Child Development, 85, 1275-1291. 10.1111/cdev.12176
McKay, M. T., Boduszek, D., & Harvey, S. A. (2014). The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: A bifactor answer to a two-factor question? Journal of Personality Assessment, 96, 654-660. 10.1080/00223891.2014.923436
O’Mara, A. J., Marsh, H. W., Craven, R. G., & Debus, R. L. (2006). Do Self-Concept Interventions Make a Difference? A Synergistic Blend of Construct Validation and Meta-Analysis. Educational Psychologist, 41(3), 181-206. 10.1207/s15326985ep4103_4
Orth, U. (2016). The development of self-esteem. En J. Specht (Ed). Personality Development Across the Lifespan. Elsevier.
Orth, U., Erol, R. Y., & Luciano, E. C. (2018). Development of self-esteem from age 4 to 94 years: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological bulletin, 144(10), 1045-1080. 10.1037/bul0000161
Orth, U., & Robins, R. W. (2014). The development of self-esteem. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(5), 381-387. 10.1177/0963721414547414
Reina, M. C. (2017). Percepciones de autoevaluación: Autoestima, autoeficacia y satisfacción vital en la adolescencia. Psychology, Society, & Education, 2(1), 55-69. 10.25115/psye.v2i1.435
Reise, S. P., Kim, D. S., Mansolf, M., & Widaman, K. F. (2016). Is the bifactor model a better model or is it just better at modeling implausible responses? Application of iteratively reweighted least squares to the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Multivariate behavioral research, 51(6), 818-838. 10.1080/00273171.2016.1243461
Resett, S. (2018). Estabilidad de ser victimizado, ser agresor, problemas emocionales y de conductas en adolescentes. ¿Estabilidad o cambio? Interdisciplinaria. Revista de Psicología y Ciencias Afines, 35(2), 341-362. 10.16888/interd.2018.35.2.6
Rhodewalt, F., & Tragakis, M. W. (2003). Self-esteem and self-regulation: Toward optimal studies of self-esteem. Psychological Inquiry, 14(1), 66-70.
Robins, R. W., Hendin, H. M., & Trzesniewski, K. H. (2001). Measuring Global Self-Esteem: Construct Validation of a Single-Item Measure and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(2), 151-161. 10.1177/0146167201272002
Rodríguez, C., & Caño, A. (2012). Autoestima en la adolescencia: Análisis y estrategias de intervención. Psychology and Psychological Therapy, 12, 389-403.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton University Press.
Rosenberg, M. (1986). Self-concept from middle childhood through adolescence. En J. Suls, & A. G. Greenwald (Eds.), Psychological perspectives on the self (pp. 107-135). Lawrence Erlbaum.
Schoeps, K., Peris-Hernández, M., Garaigordobil, M., & Montoya-Castilla, I. (2020). Risk factors for being a victim of online grooming in adolescents. Psicothema, 31(4), 1-9. 10.7334/psicothema2019.179
Schunk, D. H., Pintrich, P. R., Meece, J. L., & Pintrich, P. R. (2008). Motivation in education: Theory, research, and applications. Pearson/Merrill Prentice Hall.
Shevlin, M. E., Bunting, B. P., & Lewis, C. A. (1995). Confirmatory factor analysis of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Psychological Reports, 76(3), 707-710. 10.2466/pr0.1995.76.3.707
Sigüenza, W.G., Quezada, E., & Reyes, M. L. (2019). Autoestima en la adolescencia media y tardía. Revista Espacios, 40(15), 19.
Simón, M. M., Molero, M. M., Pérez-Fuentes M. C., Gázquez, J. J., Barragán, A. B., & Martos, A. (2017). Análisis de la relación existente entre el apoyo social percibido, la autoestima global y la autoeficacia general. European Journal of Health Research (EJHR), 3(2), 137-149. 10.30552/ejhr.v3i2.71
Sinclair, S. J., Blais, M. A., Gansler, D. A., Sandberg, E., Bistis, K., & LoCicero, A. (2010). Psychometric properties of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: Overall and across demographic groups living within the United States. Evaluation & the health professions, 33(1), 56-80. 10.1177/0163278709356187
Tafarodi, R. W., & Swann, W. B. (1995). Self-liking and self-competence as dimensions of global self-esteem: Initial validation of a measure. Journal of Personality Assessment, 65, 322-342.
Trzesniewski, K. H., Donnellan, M. B., Moffitt, T. E., Robins, R. W., Poulton, R., & Caspi, A. (2006). Low self-esteem during adolescence predicts poor health, criminal behavior, and limited economic prospects during adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 42(2), 381-390. 10.1037/0012-1649.42.2.381
Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2001). Age and birth cohort differences in selfesteem: A cross temporal meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5(4), 321-344. 10.1207/S15327957PSPR0504_3
Ul-Haq, M. A. (2016). Association between socio-demographic background and self-esteem of university students. Psychiatric Quarterly, 87(4), 755-762. 10.1007/s11126-016-9423-5
Ventura-León, J., Caycho-Rodriguez, T., Barboza-Palomino, M., & Salas, G. (2018). Evidencias psicométricas de la Escala de Autoestima de Rosenberg en adolescentes Limeños. Revista Interamericana de Psicología, 52(1), 44-60. 10.30849/rip/ijp.v52i1.363
Vernon, M. E., Green, J. A., & Frothingham, T. E. (1983). Teenage pregnancy: A prospective study of self-esteem and other sociodemographic factors. Pediatrics, 72(5), 632-635.