Porta Linguarum. An International Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Learning

What drives teacher self-efficacy in the digital age? Insights from online k-12 Chinese language education

2026-01-15T08:24:46+00:00

As online K-12 language teaching grows, teachers’ self-efficacy is critical but its factors in digital settings remain unclear. This study addresses this gap by examining the self-efficacy levels and influencing factors among online K-12 Chinese as a Foreign Language (CFL) teachers. Using a mixed-methods approach with data from 610 questionnaires and 13 interviews, results indicated generally high teachers’ self-efficacy. Key internal factors include gender, age, educational background, major, and teaching experience, while external environmental factors such as class size, platform support, training, and parental involvement also play a significant role. However, job status and weekly class hours did not show a significant impact. This study extends self-efficacy theory into the online CFL context and offers practical implications for digital pedagogy, platform design, and teacher training.

Impact of a virtual reality intervention on Palestinian EFL students’ speaking skills

2026-03-12T07:10:21+00:00

This study evaluated the effectiveness of a virtual reality (VR) application in improving English speaking skills among seventh- and eighth-grade female students at Ziad Abu Ein Primary Upper School in Palestine, based on Situated Learning Theory, which emphasises the effectiveness of contextualised learning through real-life simulations. The sample included 66 students, assigned to an experimental group (n = 43) using the VR and a control group (n = 23) studying via a traditional method. The application provided immersive environments through 360-degree videos and interactive activities linked to daily life. A Cambridge English A2 speaking test was administered pre- and post-intervention to measure outcomes. The experimental group showed significant improvement in four out of five indicators under study (grammar and vocabulary, pronunciation, interactive communication, and the total score) with medium to large effect sizes. Students across the three performance levels established in the study benefited similarly, reflecting equitable learning opportunities. Results indicated that the VR environment enhanced spoken production, an outcome particularly valuable in the resource-limited Palestinian context. The study recommends expanding this approach to other schools and age groups and evaluating the long-term effectiveness of VR in teaching English as a foreign language.

Pedagogical models of generative AI in Secondary English language teaching

2026-03-12T12:30:25+00:00

The rapid rise of generative artificial intelligence (AI) is reshaping the pedagogical landscape of English Language Teaching (ELT), particularly in secondary education where teachers confront heterogeneous proficiency levels, escalating curricular demands and evolving expectations for digitally mediated learning. While existing research has examined teacher attitudes, digital competence and ethical concerns, far less is known about the discipline-specific instructional practices through which English teachers operationalise AI within real classroom contexts. Addressing this gap, this qualitative study employs reflexive thematic analysis to investigate how in-service secondary school English teachers in Spain integrate AI tools into their pedagogical decision-making and instructional design. The analysis identifies four pedagogical configurations of AI use—Material-Oriented Use, Adaptive and Differentiated Use, Feedback-Centred Use, and Minimal or Peripheral Use—which reflect distinct logics of practice, degrees of teacher agency and levels of alignment with contemporary ELT principles, including communicative competence and Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) informed differentiation. In addition, the study proposes a conceptual framework for interpreting emerging modes of AI-mediated English language teaching, situating these practices within contemporary debates on teacher agency, pedagogical design and technological mediation, and contributing to a more nuanced understanding of how AI is being negotiated within language education.

Continuous Professional Development and its effects on resilience and job satisfaction in L2 teaching staff

2024-11-14T11:32:28+00:00

The present study explored the potential mediating role of participation in continuous professional development (CPD) activities on the relation among contextual factors, resilience, teacher job satisfaction. Job satisfaction is conceived as the dependent variable in the present study. The participants were 300 in-service EFL teachers, employed in various schools at elementary, high school and university levels. To collect data, four data collection tools were used. The first tool is Professional Development Scale (PDS), developed by de Vries et al. (2010). There are three sub-dimensions in this tool: (1) updating activities section, (2) reflective activities, and (3) collaborative activities. The second tool utilized in the present study was Perceived School Context Scale (PSCS), developed by Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2010), which consists of sections like time pressure, autonomy, discipline problems, and supervisory support. The third research tool was the Resilience Scale, which was developed by Connor–Davidson (2003). Finally, the Teacher satisfaction Scale, developed by Ho and Au's (2006), was used to measure teacher satisfaction. The results indicate that primary predictors of CPD are resilience, education level, autonomy, as well as educational background and updating activities mediate the relation between resilience and teacher satisfaction.

Navigating the concept of critical pedagogy in Latin American language education: A systematic review, 2015–2025

2025-11-19T09:56:20+00:00

Generally speaking, a solid grasp of critical pedagogy in language teaching contexts provides a solid foundation for addressing inequality and promoting social justice inside the classrooms. In a territory such as Latin America, which has been historically perpetuated by violence and aggression against indigenous peoples and other minority communities, the need to recognize and validate diverse identities and knowledges is latent. Subsequently, the following systematic literature review presents a comprehensive, open, and unbiased examination of research reports that explore the implications of applying and implementing Critical Pedagogy in language classrooms from Latin American countries. To achieve said goal, a total of 50 articles from 2015 to 2025 were identified across five databases and proceeded to be analyzed through a rigorous process to identify, evaluate, and synthesize pertinent studies, ensuring that the findings are supported by solid evidence. The results offer a picture of the Critical Pedagogy in the onto-epistemic notion, methodological/procedural methods (Literacy), and sociocultural/political position. In the same light, this review affords a critical and analytical discussion of the concept of Critical Pedagogy in Latin America as essential for contextual relevance, political resistance, epistemic justice, and transformative education.

Artificial Intelligence in teaching creative writing: A systematic review in L1 and additional languages learning contexts

2026-04-16T11:44:45+00:00

The emergence of Artificial Intelligence (AI), particularly generative models, has profoundly impacted language education, creating a research gap concerning its application in creative writing. This systematic review follows the PRISMA 2020 guidelines to analyse 21 experimental or quasi-experimental studies published between 2020 and 2025, exploring the use of AI in teaching creative writing in both first language (L1) and additional language (AL) contexts. The findings show a nascent but rapidly expanding field, with 76% of included studies published in 2024 or 2025. Research is primarily conducted in higher education, and commercial Large Language Models (LLMs) like ChatGPT are the most frequently used tools. Creative writing tasks overwhelmingly centre on short stories, particularly in L2 settings. AI integration mostly occurs in the pre-writing (idea generation) and drafting (feedback/refinement) phases. Students generally perceive AI positively, reporting increased creativity, particularly through image generation, and enhanced motivation and engagement. AI co-creation is linked to improvements in textual quality for less proficient learners, such as better logical structure and grammatical accuracy. This review highlights the potential of AI as a co-creation tool in the creative writing classroom.

EIL input, gender, and metacognitive listening strategies in CEFR-aligned primary EFL

2026-04-28T22:50:23+00:00

This study investigates the use of metacognitive listening strategies among Spanish primary school learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and examines the influence of input variability, gender, and grade level. A quantitative, quasi-experimental cross-sectional design was employed with a sample of 1,038 fifth- and sixth-grade students. Participants were divided into a control group exposed to native English input and an experimental group exposed to English as an International Language (EIL). Data were collected using an adapted Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire (MALQ) and a tailored Listening Comprehension Test. Results revealed that exposure to native English yielded significantly higher overall listening performance and directed attention compared to EIL. Significant gender differences were observed: female learners demonstrated superior performance in planning-evaluation, directed attention, problem-solving, and overall metacognitive awareness, while males exhibited a higher reliance on mental translation. Furthermore, a developmental paradox was noted: sixth-grade students reported lower explicit metacognitive strategy use despite achieving higher listening scores, suggesting a shift towards cognitive automaticity. These findings highlight the need for sustained, multidimensional, and personalized metacognitive pedagogical interventions in primary EFL contexts.

How to teach grammar? A contrastive study of the beliefs of in-service language teachers

2025-10-31T11:08:39+00:00

The project “The development of an interlinguistic school grammar: towards reflective language teaching in multilingual contexts” (Egramint), in which this article is included, aims to develop a cross-linguistic school grammar that promotes reflection throughout the language teaching-learning process. To this end, and as a preliminary step, an exploratory study has been carried out on the beliefs that active teachers of first and foreign languages have about grammar teaching. The results have been obtained from the analysis of the answers to a questionnaire composed of 38 questions that was completed by a varied sample of 70 teachers from all over Spain. It can be observed that there are significant differences in some teaching practices, but teachers of all languages and at all educational stages show homogeneous behavior in terms of the preferred methodological criteria to be applied in class. Foreign language teachers, both in primary and secondary school, mostly opt for reflective teaching, working from the students’ own examples and the problems found in their texts.

Generative artificial intelligence as a semiotic mediator in the learning of Spanish as an additional language in Secondary Education

2026-03-12T12:00:46+00:00

This study examines how generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) functions as a semiotic mediator in the development of multimodal communicative competence among immigrant secondary learners of Spanish as an Additional Language (SAL) in plurilingual contexts. Informed by research on multiliteracies, multimodal communication, pedagogical translanguaging and the FAMILY analytical model, it adopts an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design comprising a quasi-experimental phase (two GenAI groups and one control; 48 students in three secondary schools) followed by qualitative analyses. Across eight weeks, learners completed three multimodal tasks (podcast, infographic and video production) in which GenAI supported planning, revision and design processes under structured teacher mediation and guided use of home languages. Linear mixed-effects models revealed significant improvements in multimodal performance, academic literacy, pronunciation and motivation, with particularly marked gains among learners whose first language is not Spanish. Qualitative analyses identified mechanisms of semiotic integration, cognitive translanguaging and ethical reflexivity, mapped onto the FAMILY dimensions and the Framework for Visual Literacy. Overall, GenAI is conceptualised as a compensatory cultural tool capable of promoting linguistic equity, multimodal participation and critical literacy when integrated within reflective pedagogical mediation, heterogeneous collaboration and explicit instruction in digital ethics. Methodological constraints are acknowledged, and future research directions are indicated.

Towards an integrative approach to teaching Spanish pronunciation to Mandarin-speaking learners

2026-03-25T07:18:31+00:00

This article presents an integrative approach to teaching Spanish pronunciation to Mandarin-speaking learners within a communicative and task-based framework. It combines principles from Melodic Analysis of Speech (MAS), the Verbo-Tonal Method (VTM) and Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) to design sequences that connect pronunciation work with communicative goals. The proposal is based on a double criterion: corrective, because it addresses phonetic features that may affect intelligibility, and communicative, because it prioritizes forms relevant to oral interaction. Special emphasis is placed on prosody, multimodal perception and the use of melodic curves obtained with Praat, together with Verbo-Tonal techniques such as body movement, tension and combinatorial phonetics. Finally, the article provides examples of activities for upper-A2 and B1 learners that can be adapted to different Spanish as an additional language contexts.

The flipped classroom approach: Enhancing behavioral, cognitive, emotional engagement, and language learning in elementary language classes

2022-07-18T19:58:31+00:00

This study elucidated how a flipped classroom approach influences EFL students' behavioral, cognitive, and emotional engagement, as well as language learning in elementary private language classes. Forty-eight female students (average age 11) were divided into control and experimental groups (24 each). The experimental group received tasks and video clips via a Telegram channel for home study, followed by in-class games and activities to encourage participation and activate prior knowledge. Students' proficiency was assessed before and after the treatment using Babel test samples based on the Nelson Quick Check Placement Tests. Engagement was measured using the school engagement scale by Fredricks et al. (2005), which assesses behavioral, emotional, and cognitive dimensions. Data were analyzed using SPSS 26. Results revealed that the flipped classroom approach influenced all types of engagement; the highest difference was observed in cognitive engagement, and the lowest in behavioral engagement. Regarding language learning, the results indicated that the flipped approach led to better outcomes in the experimental group. Hence, the findings highlight the effectiveness of the flipped technique in enhancing language learning and positively affecting student engagement in classroom activities. These results could be beneficial for curriculum designers aiming to incorporate more entertaining and operational activities.

Teacher support and student engagement in foreign language learning: The mediation of L2 grit

2026-05-14T19:24:44+00:00

Research has substantiated the significance of student engagement in foreign language learning. Student engagement can be affected by contextual and individual factors. Guided by the general motivation framework, this study investigated the effect of teacher support(emotional, instrumental, informational and appraisal support) on student engagement (behavioral, emotional, cognitive and agentic engagement) in foreign language learning and the potential mediating role of L2 grit. Students’ learning outcomes were also examined. The variables were measured with validated instruments among 355 Chinese EFL students. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) and correlation analysis generated four major findings: (1) teacher support directly and indirectly predicted student engagement; (2) both perseverance of effort (POE) and consistency of interest (COI) mediated the effect of teacher support on student engagement; (3) the mediation effect of POE was stronger than COI; (4) Engagement was positively associated to foreign language achievement. These results support the general motivational framework by Skinner et al. (2009) on the interactive dynamics of Context, Self, Action and Outcomes in learning. The findings highlight the significance of teacher support in shaping students’ action (engagement) and intrapsychic process (L2 grit) in L2 learning. Theoretical and practical implications and new avenues for future studies are discussed.

Exploring how psychological capital and grit shape language learners' psychological well-being in AI-based educational contexts: A bifactor analysis

2026-06-03T12:47:53+00:00

Integrating Artificial Intelligence (AI) into language teaching has changed learning settings, yet the mental systems sustaining students' Psychological Well-being (PWB) remain largely overlooked. Based on Self-Determination Theory (SDT), this research examines how two intrinsic resources—PsyCap and L2 grit—boost PWB in AI-based contexts, as both are vital for protecting PWB in feedback-rich, demanding environments. Thus, 498 Chinese learners of Japanese from four universities who actively use AI-based apps participated. Three validated questionnaires adapted to AI settings were administered online. To disentangle the unique contributions of grit and PsyCap to PWB, a bifactor modeling approach was used. Results showed that both PsyCap and grit significantly predicted PWB, with the bifactor model revealing that a general psychological resource factor accounted for substantial variance, while specific dimensions of each provided unique contributions. By integrating positive psychology and SDT in AI-based learning, this research advances theory and suggests practical interventions that promote PsyCap and grit to develop learners' PWB.

Unpacking L2 teachers’ and learners’ reflections on the hidden challenges of AI-assisted language education

2026-04-17T13:12:48+00:00

This phenomenological study investigated the challenges experienced by Iranian and Saudi teachers and learners in artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted L2 classrooms. Using maximum variation sampling, a total of 117 participants were selected from diverse educational institutions in Iran and Saudi Arabia. Drawing on written reflective narratives and semi-structured interviews, the study revealed that AI integration generated a set of educational, emotional, and ethical challenges that transformed language education practices. Educational challenges included misalignment between AI outputs and curricular goals, insufficient institutional training, and learners’ overreliance on automated feedback. Emotionally, both teachers and learners reported heightened anxiety, reduced confidence, and frustration arising from conflicting human–AI feedback and rapidly evolving technological demands. Ethically, participants highlighted concerns about academic dishonesty, data privacy risks, cultural insensitivity, and unequal access to reliable AI tools. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that AI is not merely a technological enhancement but a transformative force that reconfigures pedagogical routines, affective experiences, and moral responsibilities. The study concludes by outlining theoretical and practical implications for responsible, context-sensitive, and educationally meaningful AI integration in L2 contexts.

The effects of typological proximity between Portuguese and Spanish on the use of derived words in PFL

2026-06-16T18:33:38+00:00

In this paper, we present the results of a study on the effects of typological proximity between Portuguese and Spanish on the use of derived words (DW) by learners of Portuguese as a foreign language (PFL) at different stages of their (inter)linguistic development. Based on a comparative study of the lexicogenetic constructions used in a corpus of texts written by PFL learners in immersion and their Spanish counterparts, we assess the extent of the coincidence of word construction patterns and morpholexical constituents (bases and affixes) in the two languages, in order to gauge how this knowledge influences the production of derived words at different levels of proficiency (from A1 to C1). According to the data collected, learners who have Spanish as their L1 accurately instantiate (85.7% on average) the construction patterns of Portuguese, in line with the high degree of coincidence of the patterns and affixes used in these two languages. The deviations, in addition to being insignificant, mainly concern the graphic representation of lexical bases.

Introduction

2026-06-04T15:39:26+00:00

Building Disciplinary Literacies in Content and Language Integrated Learning. Julia Hüttner and Christiane Dalton-Puffer (2024). London and New York: Routledge, 240 pages, ISBN: 978-1-032-51729-2

2026-01-23T05:48:45+00:00

The Affective Dimension in English-Medium Instruction in Higher Education. Lasagabaster, D., Fernández-Costales, A. & González-Mujico, F. (Eds.) (2025). Multilingual Matters, 262 pages. e-Book ISBN: 9781800417663

2026-03-08T17:32:35+00:00

Frontiers in Technology-Mediated Language Learning: New Directions in Computer Assisted Language Learning. Mark Peterson, M. & Jabbari, N. (Eds.) (2024). Routledge, 139 pages. ISBN: 978-1-032-49726-6

2025-09-02T18:21:03+00:00

Technology-Mediated Language Teaching: From Social Justice to Artificial Intelligence. Muñoz-Basols, J., Fuertes Gutiérrez, M. & Cerezo, L. (2025): Multilingual Matters, 344 pages, ISBN: 978-18-0041-986-5

2026-03-09T10:06:10+00:00

Technology and Language Learning: Effective Podcasting and Video-Based Language Teaching Practices in the Age of Generative AI. Eric Friginal and Wing Yee Jenifer Ho (2026). London and New York: Routledge, 210 pages. ISBN: 978-1-032-06106-1

2026-03-20T11:45:08+00:00

Edited & Co-Financed

2026-06-04T15:41:11+00:00

Committees & Journal/Issue Data

2026-06-04T15:36:13+00:00