Descansamos-xiuxiamos: a case study of a teacher’s translanguaging practices and attitude in an L3 Spanish audio-oral classroom at a Chinese university

: Translanguaging is a concept that has been widely adopted to conceptualize the diverse multilingual and multimodal practices in foreign language classrooms. This study explored one teacher’s translanguaging practices and attitude in an L3 Spanish audio-oral classroom at a Chinese university. Based on data collected from classroom observation and interviews, the study identified a full range of translanguaging practices, including gestures, visual cues, touch, tone, pictures, and switching between languages, which the teacher used for five major purposes: concept/language point explanation, comprehension check, content knowledge localization, instruction reinforcement, and rapport building. The teacher acknowledged the value of translanguaging as a means to engage students’ full linguistic and cultural repertoires, assist content learning, and build rapport. The pedagogical implications of incorporating translanguaging practices in ELE ( español como lengua extranjera ) pedagogy is discussed, with insights into the teaching of languages other than English (LOTEs) in and beyond China.


IntroductIon
Educational policies fueled by the monolingual ideology have long been resistant to learners' first languages in second/foreign language classrooms (Cenoz & Gorter, 2011;Cummins, 2019).These policies have been challenged by recent studies revealing the limitations of monolingual teaching (Macaro et al., 2018).Alternative perspectives have been proposed for a multilingual and holistic view of language education that mobilizes learners' linguistic resources, among which translanguaging has gained particular popularity (McMillan & Rivers, 2011;Cenoz & Gorter, 2011).
Translanguaging entails exploiting learners' full linguistic repertoires to gain knowledge, make sense, articulate thoughts, and communicate (Li, 2011).Dissimilar to code-switching, code-mixing, and code-meshing, translanguaging values social, cultural, and multimodal resources as learning assets for inclusive education (Dovchin & Lee, 2019) and linguistic and cultural diversity.It has been widely adopted in diverse learning settings, typically in pedagogical contexts involving English as the students' second language (Canagarajah, 2011;Wang, 2019;Yuvayapan, 2019) and English as an additional language for bilingual students (Lin & He, 2017;Nilser, 2016;Moore, 2014).
Despite its monolingual policy (Zhang, 2016), China presents a complex picture of foreign language teaching and learning.Apart from Mandarin Chinese (Putonghua) as L1, students often have different dialectal backgrounds.Formal English instruction is introduced in primary school and continues throughout foundation education (Lam, 2002).As such, students can be considered learners with bilingual (L1 Chinese Mandarin and L2 English) or trilingual (L1 Chinese Mandarin, L1 Chinese dialect, and L2 English) resources (Lu et al., 2021).Teachers also bring rich linguistic resources to the classroom, especially since as well as local teachers sharing students' L1, non-Chinese teachers with multilingual backgrounds are playing an increasingly active part (Falero, 2016).Thus, various translanguaging practices have emerged in foreign language classrooms in China (Wang, 2019), which have received growing research attention with a heavy focus on English classrooms (Jiang et al., 2022;Liu & Fang, 2022;Sun & Zhang, 2022).
With its rising international prominence (Zhou et al. 2020), Spanish has become popular among Chinese learners, with over 100 institutions nationwide offering undergraduate Hispanic Philology programs (Lu et al., 2019).Targeting the teaching of Spanish as an L3 delivered by a multilingual Spanish speaker, this study intends to investigate translanguaging practices in a

Xiuchuan Lu & Ya Zuo
Descansamos-xiuxiamos: a case study of a teacher's... languages other than English (LOTE) classroom, where research is needed (Chen et al., 2021;Tsuchiya, 2017).Moreover, the existing literature largely ignores the multimodal dimension of translanguaging practices, and the audio-oral classes in this study provide a rich source of multimodal resources and activities.Overall, the current study is guided by two questions: 1. What translanguaging strategies did the Spanish teacher use in the L3 Spanish audio-oral classroom?2. What was the Spanish teacher's attitude towards translanguaging practices in the classroom.

Translanguaging and types of translanguaging practices
With its origin in Welsh bilingual education, translanguaging was proposed as a way to capture planned pedagogical strategies wherein students receive input in one language and respond in another to augment their understanding (Baker et al., 2012).As the practice encompasses a full range of resources, including gestures, objects, visual cues, touch, tone, sounds, and words, some scholars have emphasized the multimodal nature of translanguaging (García & Li, 2014;Li, 2018).As the term has evolved, it has been employed to describe multilingual and multimodal practices in diverse contexts and research settings (Creese & Blackledge, 2010;Wang, 2019).Despite its extensive application, however, translanguaging has remained underexplored, with limited empirical research exploring its multimodal dimension.Targeting a Spanish classroom in a Chinese university, the current study intends to delve into the complexity of translanguaging in language pedagogy and the multimodal nature of this kind of communication.

Translanguaging practices and their benefits
Targeting the full linguistic repertoires that bi/multilingual individuals use to communicate in a globalizing world, research on translanguaging sets out to capture diverse multilingual and multimodal practices in foreign language classrooms (García & Li, 2014;Li & García, 2022).A series of studies has identified various translanguaging practices of language teachers.Wang (2019) distinguished between explanatory and managerial translanguaging strategies in a Chinese as a foreign language (CFL) classroom.Further clarifications were offered by Zhang et al. (2020), who identified giving instructions, maintaining discipline, introducing items, explaining items, checking for understanding, and assisting pronunciation as the purposes of translanguaging.Based on their observations in English as a foreign language (EFL) and English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) classrooms, Fang and Liu (2020) proposed a function-based classification of translanguaging practices, including concept/language point explanation, comprehension check, instruction reinforcement, content knowledge localization, and rapport building.Given its applicability across learning contexts (Raja et al., 2022;Saha November 2023& Mohammad, 2022), we adopted this classification, with this decision also based on the fact that the Spanish audio-oral classes in the current study were content-based and delivered in the target language to provide an immersive language-learning experience, sharing similarities with the EMI course in Fang and Liu's (2020) study.Overall, this classification model adequately captured the translanguaging practices we observed in the Spanish classroom.
Moreover, studies exploring the pedagogical value of translanguaging have attested to its positive role in improving students' confidence (Fang & Liu, 2020;Galloway et al., 2017), cognitive skills (Cenoz & Gorter, 2022), metalinguistic awareness and information processing (Cenoz & Santos, 2020;Cenoz & Gorter, 2022), lending special support to students with lower proficiency (Wang, 2019).Studies on translanguaging practices in Spanish classrooms revealed that student-teacher rapport activates students' repertoires and facilitates communication and information processing via translation, dialogues, lectures, and multilingual texts (Nilser, 2016), and that strategic translanguaging practices (e.g., the use of Spanglish) helped to improve students' critical linguistic awareness and empowerment through positive ideological reconstruction and attitudinal reconfiguration (Prada, 2019).Research on translanguaging practices in Spanish classrooms in China is limited to Zhou et al.'s study (2020) on a Spanish intensive reading course in which the teachers and the students shared the first language (Putonghua).Due to the convenience offered by this shared L1, the multilingual behavior reported in this study was predominantly between Putonghua and Spanish, with only scarce use of English to draw comparisons.However, translanguaging practices are not limited to the multilingual behavior mentioned above; more critical content and language-integrated learning (CLIL) should also be incorporated into translanguaging practices, establishing links between the social, cultural, community, and linguistic domains that are relevant to individual students (Creese & Blackledge, 2010).

Teachers' attitudes towards translanguaging
Although the advantages of translanguaging practices in language teaching are recognized by some stakeholders (McMillan & Rivers, 2011;Liu & Fang, 2022), others tend to have mixed attitudes.Some teachers viewed it as compromising the standard usage that should undergird classroom communication (Zhang et al., 2020).A sense of guilt was expressed among individuals who clung to the preconceived benefits of the monolingual approach in foreign language teaching (Levine, 2003;Wang, 2019), which has been reported to diminish students' motivation to use translanguaging and engage in class activities (Wang, 2019).In addition, some teachers held concerns about students' overuse of L1 in translanguaging (Wang & Kirkpatrick, 2012).To address the guilt and concerns, Wang (2019) Overall, studies on teachers' practices and attitudes towards translanguaging have mostly focused on English classrooms and verbal multilingual practices, with only limited attention to LOTEs and multimodal practices.To bridge these gaps, this study intends to investigate the multilingual and multimodal practices in an L3 Spanish classroom where the teacher does not share the students' L1 and the teacher's attitude towards translanguaging strategies.

Research context and participants
The current study was conducted in an L3 Spanish audio-oral classroom in a prestigious comprehensive research university in eastern China (University X).As a 985-Project university (a government-initiated program to build world-class universities in the 21 st century), the institution has had a dedicated Spanish department since 2014.
Convenience sampling was adopted to recruit one L1 Spanish teacher (pseudonym Juan) and 20 L1 Chinese students via the second author's personal contacts.Juan had lived in China for about ten years at the time of this study, and had over 13 years of experience in teaching Spanish as a foreign language.He received his PhD degree in language, literature and culture in Spain, and had obtained a Cambridge ESOL C1 Certificate and an HSK 2 Certificate (hanyu shuiping kaoshi, Chinese-language proficiency test).The 20 students (13 female, 7 male) were all in their second semester of the undergraduate program in Hispanic Philology offered by University X.They had over ten years of L2 English learning experience, with self-reported proficiency levels of B2 to C1.They had been learning Spanish using the textbook Español Moderno (Modern Spanish) and had finished volume 1.With a vocabulary of around 1,000 words, they had reached a level roughly comparable to A1.They were attending the audio-oral course taught by Juan, a foundation course designed to improve students' listening and speaking skills to supplement their intensive reading of the textbook

Data collection
Data were collected from three sources: 1) classroom observation, to record multilingual and multimodal practices; 2) focus group interviews with the students, to allow them to comment on Juan's translanguaging practices; and 3) a stimulated recall interview with Juan, to capture his strategies and attitude.After getting consent from all the participants, one of the authors recorded Juan's audio-oral classes from March 2021 to June 2021, attending one 90-minute session per month.The sampling of classroom observations was random, without the teacher knowing in advance which classes were to be videotaped.After obtaining approximately 360 minutes of video the two authors transcribed and analyzed the video content, including manually transcribing the footage and tagging the video for translanguaging practices.Notes were taken during the transcription and were tagged to facilitate later analysis.
To further explore Juan's translanguaging practices, in July 2021 four focus group interviews were organized by the second author, who acted as a moderator.The interviews were semi-structured with prompts based on Juan's classroom translanguaging practices.Each group consisted of five students randomly chosen from the 20 participants.Each interview lasted approximately 40 minutes, with the students invited to talk freely in response to the prompts.All the interviews were conducted in Chinese and audio recorded with the participants' permission for later transcription.
Subsequently, based on Fang and Liu's (2020) categorization of translanguaging practices in the language classroom, the video-tagged frames and transcripts, notes, and interview transcripts were collected using NVivo 12, and two transcripts were randomly selected and

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November 2023 coded by the first author following the procedure proposed by Cohen et al. (2011).Pilot coding was checked by both authors, who discussed discrepancies until a consensus was reached.The finalized agreed-upon coding scheme was followed by the first author, who coded the rest of the data.The coding process was conducted stepwise, specifying three levels (Table 1), with the third-level coding distinguishing and tagging different concepts in the translanguaging practice data.These coding results informed the second-level coding, which examined the relationships between the concepts and categories before labeling and organizing them to identify themes.The identified themes were then categorized for the first-level analysis.Meanwhile, a stimulated recall interview was conducted to unpack Juan's attitude and verbalized thoughts about his decision-making and strategies used in the classroom (Borg, Descansamos-xiuxiamos: a case study of a teacher's... 2015).The interview was conducted in June 2021 in a private and quiet place.Guidelines were given to clarify the purpose of the study.The teacher watched the recorded classroom video together with the second author in one go.The researcher paused the video at selected translanguaging segments to ask Juan for explanations and comments.Juan was also asked to pause the video wherever he wanted to make a comment.The stimulated recall interview was conducted in Spanish and was recorded with permission.The recorded interview was transcribed and translated by the first author and checked by both authors.Then the transcript was coded using NVivo 12. Pilot coding was carried out by the first author and then checked by both authors.The coding process was completed by the first author, which also specified three levels: the first-level coding described the teacher's attitude; the second-level coding determined whether the attitude was positive or negative; and the third-level coding detailed the specific theme, i.e., the teacher's attitude towards a specific translanguaging practice.While some ambiguous or mixed attitudes were identified in the coding process, only positive and negative attitudes will be discussed in this study.

Translanguaging practices in the classroom
The five types of translanguaging practices identified by Fang and Liu (2020) were observed in the Spanish audio-oral classroom.For an overall picture, we calculated the frequency-based proportion of each type (the occurrences were counted manually by the first author and checked by the second author).The results show that about 45% of the observed translanguaging practices were for concept/language point explanation, 5% for comprehension checking, 15% for instruction reinforcement, 20% for content knowledge localization, and 15% for rapport building.While these practices were mainly carried out by the teacher, some also involved the students' participation.

Concept/language point explanation
Translanguaging aimed at concept/language point explanation was frequently observed in the classroom.Juan's major multimodal practices included multilingual behavior, gestures and body movements, the use of pictures, word clouds, and other visual aids, among which pictures and multilingual behaviors were mainly used for explaining language or grammar points.

Figure 1. Example 1
To explain the Spanish vocabulary for nurse, Juan specifically chose a picture of a male nurse and the masculine form of the word enfermero rather than the more frequently and extensively used feminine form of the word enfermera.This choice was explained by Juan as a deliberate attempt to break the professional stereotype of gender equality.In his explanation, Juan asked the students to locate the nurse in the picture, creating a chance to review the direction vocabulary izquierda/derecha (left/right) and en primer plano/al fondo (in the foreground/in the background), which he used body language to aid understanding.Juan commented that using spatial resources could help the students to organize information in a more logical and effective way.Language-wise, the use of pictures provided a visual guide for the students to distinguish the gender of nouns in Spanish.

Figure 2. Example 2
Descansamos-xiuxiamos: a case study of a teacher's...In Example 2 Juan used pictures and language shifts to teach the vocabulary of symptoms in Spanish.While explaining the word pedo (fart), he used humor to lighten the atmosphere and the Chinese word qi (气) to aid understanding.It was interesting to note that instead of using the exact Chinese equivalent, pi (屁), he used a euphemistic expression literally meaning "gas" (qi).

Figure 3. Example 3
Example 3 showcases Juan's translanguaging strategies to explain the copula verbs ser and estar and their differences in use.As well as language shifts between Spanish and Chinese, the excerpts show that he occasionally included English (i.e., bad qualities, bad behavior) to explain particular grammatical points.As English is closer to Spanish than Chinese in its lexical and syntactic rules, the use of a shared L2 English should be seen as a significantly valuable linguistic asset to aid the students' L3 Spanish acquisition (Zhou et al., 2020).

Comprehension check
According to Fang and Liu (2020), comprehension checking refers to the teacher's translanguaging strategies to confirm students' knowledge status.It is often practiced with previously learnt knowledge via the use of gestures or translation.In Example 4, Juan tugged on his ear to stimulate students' vocabulary recall for the word oreja (ear).Similar eliciting actions were carried out for body part vocabulary during the next few minutes using gestures and body movements.At moments when the students struggled to recall the target vocabulary, Juan would sound out one or two syllables to jog their memory.The use of nonverbal (gestural) strategies in combination with verbal strategies was explained by Juan to help attract students' attention with a vivid illustration.

Figure 5. Example 5
In Example 5, Juan inserted a Chinese translation in his introduction of meat vocabulary in Spanish.He used this strategy as a way to check for understanding.To avoid false or feigned understanding due to shyness about asking for clarification, he tried to explain the words in Chinese and asked the students for confirmation in Chinese in order to ensure real understanding.Juan saw smooth communication as vital to teaching students with limited proficiency; therefore, he encouraged the students to communicate with him in various ways.By using language shifts and allowing the use of dictionaries or pictures to confirm answers, he maintained effective communication, which also brought him closer to the students.Descansamos-xiuxiamos: a case study of a teacher's...

Instruction reinforcement
Previous research on L3 teaching has suggested that teachers tend to switch their teaching language to students' L1 or L2 to help them understand classroom instruction and capture their attention (Fang & Liu, 2020;Zhang et al., 2020;Zhou et al., 2020).This can be seen as a translanguaging practice for instruction reinforcement purposes.

Content knowledge localisation
This type of translanguaging practice features explaining content knowledge using locally relevant examples (Fang & Liu, 2020).In this study, the teacher applied this translanguaging strategy by drawing from Chinese culture and day-to-day experiences to design exercises.Class discussions were built around Chinese culture, e.g., local cuisine and specialties.The localization of language knowledge was evident in the class discussion on food, as shown in Example 7. In the exercise "introduce a Chinese dish in Spanish" the teacher-student conversation was conducted in Spanish interspersed with shifts to Chinese, and its content was locally relevant, i.e., hulatang 胡辣汤 (hoisin soup) and reganmian 热干面 (hot dry noodles).Juan explained that his purpose in designing this exercise was to arouse the students' interest in expressing ideas in Spanish by mobilizing their cultural resources.By sharing their hometown-based knowledge and experiences, the students also enjoyed a good opportunity for cultural exchange in the classroom.

Rapport building
It is noteworthy that Juan, who was an L1 Spanish speaker, used Chinese touches of humor to enhance classroom interaction.

Figure 8. Example 8
While talking about health, disorders, and body parts, Juan introduced the Spanish word for "fever" and asked the students for ideas for self-treatment.When one student replied "tomar agua" (drinking water) Juan extended the answer to "tomar agua caliente" ("drinking boiled water"), which elicited the students' laughter.The students found this funny because this popular Chinese home remedy for fever has made its way into popular self-joking quips on the internet.In this case Juan's knowledge of the students' native culture enabled him to arouse their interest by localizing the linguistic knowledge based on locally-specific customs, which also helped to enliven the classroom.Likewise, Juan's habitual use of the term xiuxiamos (Example 8) also served the function of rapport building, as the students found this localized translanguaging practice interesting, and it helped to reduce the distance between the students and the teacher.

The teacher's attitude
The stimulated recall interview revealed that Juan believed that it was necessary and helpful to use gestures, language shifts, local cultural elements, and other methods to fully engage his beginner-level students.While some of his practices can be seen as pedagogical translanguaging, typically when he deliberately applied certain strategies to aid clarification and understanding, there were times when he unintentionally used spontaneous translanguaging (Cenoz, 2017;Cenoz & Gorter, 2017).As Juan explained, since it was barely possible to keep everything under control in the classroom, improvisation was a common practice.However, Juan expressed his concern that if he failed to translate or pronounce a Chinese word properly, it might add to the students' difficulties in understanding.
If a Chinese word appears, there is no problem.No Chinese in class seems silly to me, especially for beginner students, because they may already feel bad, very nervous, and cannot get information from me, so it is necessary.But it also does worry me, because maybe the translations I do are not good.
Juan indicated that to keep the class running smoothly and to make it easier for the students to acquire knowledge and feel able to express themselves, he allowed them to communicate with him in various ways.For example, when explaining the word azafrán he asked the students to look it up in the dictionary.He explained: As a teacher, I feel obliged to give them the answer.But sometimes I don't know how to explain the Spanish word in Chinese or English -for example, azafrán.I asked them to find the answer in the dictionary.This is also an exercise -they don't just look up the word, they also need to explain it to me in Spanish.
Though Juan felt it was his duty to explain the meaning of the word azafrán to the students, he found he lacked the professional knowledge and experience to do it properly.As a solution, he allowed the students to consult the dictionary.As the students were asked to explain the word to him in Spanish, it created opportunities to exercise their reading comprehension and oral communication.As such, Juan used different strategies to explain different words, all aimed at effective comprehension.
In terms of the localization of different cultural elements, Juan believed that a combination of content knowledge and Chinese culture would appeal to the students.He drew from multiple cultural resources, not only from China and Spain but also from other Spanish-speaking countries.He held a highly positive attitude towards using cultural resources to motivate the students to express themselves and to make his teaching more effective, and he also recognized the benefits of having a cultural exchange in the classroom.As he explained: I chose the exercise of describing a Chinese dish because it has to do with their culture (the culture of Chinese students).[...] It is not that explaining a Chinese dish is easier for them, but because it is always more direct, more relevant to them, for sure, they will have more they will be able to visualize.[...] The nice thing in the class is the exchange of information.

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Juan was also supportive of students' use of translanguaging strategies.He would allow students to use smartphones to search for information and pictures for the words he was explaining, and would raise questions based on their search.He thought this was an effective way to sustain smooth communication.
In the end, the most important thing is communication.They (the students) don't have a sufficient Spanish base.If there was a big distance between them and me, it would be more difficult.So, looking for resources in class, many resources, not only pictures, they can search themselves.I am also going to look for information which can be used in class.
In general, Juan held a positive attitude towards translanguaging practices as he valued them in creating chances for expression, smooth classroom communication, and a lively atmosphere, without much concern about their possible influence on the 'purity' or correctness of the students' language production.

dIscussIon
In this study we explored a teacher's translanguaging practices and his attitudes toward these practices.Different from Nilser's (2016) findings that foreign language teachers of Spanish ignore other languages and attempt to use only the target language, our findings show that the L1 Spanish speaker teacher in the current study attempted to make full use of various language resources, and valued all language skills as resources in relation to social justice (García, 2009).However, it is noticeable that in certain situations the participant teacher tended to translate the target language directly into the students' L1 or L2 to help with the interpretation of difficult ideas and concepts.This strategy may not be considered a typical translanguaging practice, because it resembles adding footnotes to the teaching content rather than using content-based purposeful translanguaging strategies (García & Li, 2014).It has been suggested that multilingual behaviors in the classroom should be flexible to break down the boundaries between languages, so that students are able to fully mobilize their linguistic repertoires without being made aware of the switching act.
In contrast to Zhou et al.'s (2020) findings, which were limited to multilingual behaviors in a L3 Spanish classroom, our study identified various translanguaging practices which were typically conscious efforts to achieve particular goals (e.g., the choice of an illustration featuring a male nurse to help students learn gendered vocabulary while advocating gender equality in the profession).Juan's efforts to combine language teaching with cultural and value input created opportunities for cultural exchange in the classroom, turning the teaching and learning of foreign languages into a meeting of minds (Creese & Blackledge, 2010).Most memorably, his use of the novel term xiuxiamos, which combines Chinese and English, can be seen as a typical example of translanguaging that worked to capture the students' attention and reinforce their memory of the verb conjugation rules in Spanish.By breaking the boundaries between named languages (Li, 2018) and co-constructing knowledge content, this type of translanguaging practice may help to mobilize and maximize the linguistic repertoires of both students and teachers (Li & Lin, 2019).
This observation of a wide variety of translanguaging practices can be interpreted from three perspectives: those of the teacher, the course, and the students.Since Juan is an L1 Descansamos-xiuxiamos: a case study of a teacher's... Spanish speaker with much weaker Chinese than L1 Chinese teachers, he may be compensating for his insufficient Chinese resources by employing more multimodal practices, such as pictures and body language, to arouse students' interest and enliven the classroom atmosphere.With regard to the course, in contrast with textbook-focused foundation language classrooms (Zhou et al., 2020), this study examined an audio-oral classroom where greater emphasis was placed on student output and classroom interaction than on vocabulary and grammar learning.Furthermore, as the students involved in this study were all at a beginner level with insufficient proficiency in the target language (Galloway et al., 2017), translanguaging was efficient in facilitating their L2 learning (Wang, 2019;Fang & Liu, 2020).
The teacher's attitude towards translanguaging was found to be consistent with findings reported by McMillan and Rivers (2011) and Liu and Fang (2022).Juan generally had a positive attitude towards translanguaging practices in the classroom and was not concerned about the overuse of students' L1 Chinese or L2 English, because he saw these supplementary strategies as beneficial resources in students' L3 learning (Park & Starr, 2016, ) and agreed that translanguaging occurs naturally in foreign language classrooms (Canagarajah, 2011).Although he did not feel guilty about using L1 and L2-an issue raised by Zhang et al. (2020)-he was concerned that his lack of Chinese proficiency might present an extra challenge for the students to understand him when he tried to explain things using Chinese.However, the students were positive about their teacher's use of Chinese, and felt that both the linguistic and cultural localization of teaching brought them closer to the teacher, making them feel more relaxed when learning Spanish.This finding is in line with Wang's (2019) proposal that the effectiveness of translanguaging might not be influenced by the teacher's proficiency in the students' mother tongue, and that having a basic grasp of the students' native language would help the teacher do more with less.The teacher's lack of guilt suggests that he had freed himself from monolingual preferences, which might have helped to reconstruct his linguistic ideology and attitudinal configuration (Levine, 2003;Prada, 2019).As is common, the teacher in the current study had been using various translanguaging practices without being formally introduced to the concept.Previous studies suggest that training can help teachers to apply translanguaging more effectively in a multilingual context, thereby encouraging the creation of more critical content and language-integrated learning to improve teaching performance and students' learning outcomes (Wang, 2019;Sohn et al., 2022).
This study has offered new insights into the discussion of translanguaging pedagogy in language classrooms, which has previously focused largely on multilingual contexts where students bring competing linguistic resources to the classroom (Lau & Van Viegen, 2020;Cenoz & Santos, 2020).However, the students in our study typically only used non-Chinese languages in the classroom.Having received EFL education in their foundation years, they generally had some English and predominantly spoke Chinese, possibly with some Chinese dialects.This group of learners and their performance in a LOTE classroom present a special case of translanguaging, helping to extend the knowledge base to include underexplored, atypical occasions of teaching and learning, and which may have implications for practitioners who face similar or relatable challenges.Meanwhile, the teacher in the current study engaged his class by drawing on resources from additional languages (i.e., Chinese and English), although these were not well balanced.As a result, he sometimes felt uncertain about using the students' L1 Chinese, which was not as strong as his English.Though

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November 2023 this has not been discussed extensively in the literature, such a lack of balance in teachers' multilingual resources may influence their translanguaging practices in the real classroom, and thus it deserves further research attention.
Moreover, our findings can inform L3 Spanish teaching by offering some pedagogical implications.First, efforts are needed to enhance teachers' awareness of multilingualism and the value of capitalizing on their own linguistic repertoires, whether or not they share L1 with their students.Local teachers with a shared L1 with their students could expand their multilingual practices to include multimodal translanguaging as a way of enriching their classes.Second, teachers should learn to appreciate linguistic diversity in the classroom, and encourage students to make full use of their multilingual and multimodal resources to "push limits" and "break boundaries" (Li & Lin, 2019), enabling more effective communication and more efficient teaching as well as opportunities to expose learners to multiple languages and cases for social justice.

conclusIon
Taking a holistic and contextualized approach, this study investigated the translanguaging practices in a Spanish audio-oral classroom in China.Adopting a full range of translanguaging practices, the teacher actively engaged his students in classroom activities and communication.He made full use of various language resources to mobilize students' linguistic repertoires, and valued all language skills as resources to promote social justice (García, 2009) and enhance classroom communication and teacher-student relationships.With regard to his attitude, the teacher expressed a positive stance towards translanguaging practices, thinking of them as conducive to students' L3 learning and effective teaching.As a single case study, the interpretation of our findings is subject to specific contextual constraints; future research is needed to explore and compare translanguaging practices in various classroom settings in and beyond China, for a better understanding of the diversity and complexity of translanguaging practices in language classrooms.Moreover, guidance for translanguaging pedagogy is needed to help practitioners meet the challenges of increasingly diverse foreign language classrooms in higher education.
, Z hang et al. (2020) and Sohn et al. (2022) advocated teacher training to use translanguaging for effective teaching.

Figure 6 .
Figure 6.Example 6 Example 6 shows how Juan gave his instructions for the in-class activity dictation.While slowly explaining in Spanish, he used a handwriting gesture to illustrate the expected notetaking, and translated the task name into Chinese, tingxie (听写).The students appreciated Juan's use of translanguaging strategies in his Spanish instructions, as one student commented: Example 7 S9: Juan was very interesting.At the end of the class, he would say Descansamos, xiuxiamos (xiuxi 休息+ -amos, the suffix indicating the first-person plural present indicative of -ar verbs).It was quite funny.He just helped us to bring Spanish thinking to the Chinese.