Translanguaging in a French-medium CLIL course: An action research on a novice teacher’s course preparation

: While translanguaging has been regarded as an appropriate approach to addressing the challenges that teachers and learners experience in content and language integrated learning (CLIL) classrooms, few studies have discussed translanguaging practices in the preparation of content for third language integrated learning courses. This study aims to explore teachers’ translanguaging practices when preparing CLIL courses through the medium of languages other than English (LOTEs) in a Chinese tertiary education institution. To address the research objective, we collected data including one novice CLIL teacher’s course planning and design documents, teaching materials and other reference materials, along with reflective reports written by the teacher. Through a frequency analysis and a thematic analysis of the data, this research not only documented the dynamic flow of translanguaging practices during CLIL course preparation, but also identified multiple functions served by different languages in the CLIL context. These findings have the potential to inform LOTE teachers involved in CLIL classrooms about different translanguaging pedagogies, and enrich the theoretical framework of translanguaging.


IntroductIon
The increasing internationalisation of universities has been accompanied by a rise in content and language integrated learning (CLIL) courses.CLIL has been described as "a dual focused educational approach in which an additional language is used for the learning and teaching of both content and language" (Coyle, Hood, & Marsh, 2010, p. 1).With the growing popularity of CLIL in tertiary education, teachers of languages other than English (LOTEs) involved in CLIL lessons are increasingly confronting new problems, including limited language proficiency among students and a lack of content knowledge, ready-made teaching materials in LOTEs, and guidelines for how to integrate language and content (Wu & Lin, 2019).Thus, preparing and designing CLIL courses remains a significant challenge for LOTE teachers, especially novice teachers.
Influenced by the multilingual turn in language education, an increasing number of CLIL courses have begun to embrace translanguaging practices.The term 'translanguaging' refers to processes in which multilingual speakers make use of their full multilingual repertoires to acquire knowledge, make meaning and express themselves (García & Li, 2014).The increasing popularity of translanguaging practices is not only related to the greater flexibility they provide for classroom practice compared with traditional L2 immersion courses (Lin, 2015), but also because of the fact that translanguaging has been identified as an effective pedagogical practice to address the aforementioned challenges that teachers and learners experience in CLIL classrooms (Lin & He, 2017;Nikula & Moore, 2019).The majority of existing studies of this trend focus on the positive roles of translanguaging practices in CLIL classrooms, such as their contribution to meaning-making (e.g.Bieri, 2018), content scaffolding (e.g.Karabassova & San Isidro, 2020), highlighting topic shifts (e.g.Lin, 2015) and promoting social involvement and identity affirmation (e.g.Lin & He, 2017).
However, in CLIL contexts most previous studies limited their discussion to the role of L1, neglecting the functions of languages other than L1 in learners' linguistic repertoires and their impact on the learning of additional languages and content (Karabassova & San Isidro, 2020).Moreover, the concept of translanguaging has not yet been discussed in the contexts of the preparation of content, and in relation to third language CLIL courses.Investigation of these contexts could enrich the literature by demonstrating the potential role of translanguaging practices during CLIL course preparation, which may be distinct from the classroom context.It also has the potential to empower teachers of LOTEs, especially novice CLIL teachers, in CLIL course planning.
Translanguaging in a French-medium CLIL course... To address these gaps, this study aims to explore the variety of teachers' translanguaging practices when teaching subject content, especially in the preparation of French-medium CLIL courses in a Chinese tertiary institution.

Translanguaging as an ongoing and dynamic pedagogical practice
With the increasing popularity of translanguaging in educational contexts, a growing body of research has begun to address CLIL-based translanguaging (e.g.Lin & He, 2017;Gallagher & Colohan, 2017;Bieri, 2018;Nikula & Moore, 2019;Vázquez & Ordóñez, 2019;Karabassova & San Isidro, 2020).The use of L1 attracts the most attention in the CLIL literature.A number of studies (e.g.Gierlinger, 2015;Karabassova & San Isidro, 2020) have explored teachers' perceptions of the use of L1 in CLIL classrooms and the impact of these perceptions on teaching practices.These studies have found that CLIL teachers tend to spontaneously or strategically use L1 in classrooms despite the presence of monolingual policies and dominant monolingual ideologies.Results also reveal the positive effects of L1 use on CLIL course instruction, such as its role in content scaffolding (Karabassova & San Isidro, 2020), facilitating classroom and task management (Gierlinger, 2015), and promoting identity confirmation (Lin & He, 2017).Lin (2015) conceptualised the potential roles of L1 in CLIL and proposed a summary of the different functions of L1 within a framework inspired by Halliday's (1994) three metafunctions of language.Ideational function refers to the use of language to enable content and information to be clearly and effectively comprehended.Examples of such functions include the use of students' L1 to translate, explain, illustrate or exemplify (Lin, 2015).Textual function refers to the roles of language use in discourse, whereby the functions of L1 can be described as "highlighting (signalling) topic shifts, marking out boundaries or transitions between different stages in the lesson, different activity types or different focuses" (Lin, 2015, p. 79).The interpersonal function of language is related to establishing interpersonal social relations, including "signalling and negotiating shifts in frames and footings, role-relationships and identities, change in social distance/closeness and appealing to shared cultural values or institutional norms" (Lin, 2015, p. 79).
Drawing on this framework, we summarise previous studies on the functions of L1 in CLIL classrooms in the following figure.Despite the aforementioned findings regarding CLIL-related translanguaging, there still exist some research gaps in this domain.First, very few studies have discussed teachers' translanguaging practices during the preparation of CLIL courses, especially in courses involving third language integrated learning.The exploration of translanguaging practices during this phase could provide data to complement classroom findings, but also empower novice CLIL teachers.Second, almost all existing studies focus on the use of L1 in a CLIL context (Bieri, 2018); investigation of the role of translanguaging practices other than the use of L1 is still scant, and represents an important component of understanding how teachers make use of students' full linguistic repertoires in a CLIL context.Third, many studies analyse multiple functions of translanguaging practices as a static product; rather than as an ongoing, fluid and dynamic process of meaning-making.More research is needed exploring translanguaging practices and their roles from a perspective that views translanguaging as a dynamic process (Lin, 2019).

Research questions
Drawing on the conceptual framework of translanguaging (García & Li, 2014), we conducted action research to explore teachers' translanguaging practices in their teaching of subject content, especially in the preparation stage of French-medium CLIL courses at a Chinese tertiary institution.To address the aforementioned gaps in the existing literature, this study aims to answer the following questions: Q1: What are teachers' translanguaging practices during the preparation of CLIL courses using French as a major medium of instruction in a Chinese university?Q2: What roles do these practices play in the preparation stage of CLIL courses?Q3: What roles might these practices play in CLIL classrooms?

Method
We addressed these research questions through action research.Inspired by Lewin's (1946) model of action research, we investigated the problems that a novice CLIL teacher faces before the launch of a course.Based on an awareness of the value of translanguaging for the CLIL classroom, the first author adopted a flexible and open attitude towards the use of different languages during CLIL course planning.These practices and actions were then reflected on and examined collaboratively by the authors.Discrepancies in interpretations were discussed between the first and second authors and resolved through rounds of discussion.

Research context
This study was conducted in a prestigious Chinese tertiary education institution in Shanghai.Data were collected on a course titled "Culture of French-speaking countries and business communication", which was delivered in the medium of French.This course had for two purposes: first, to promote learners' understanding of the political, economic, social, historical and cultural characteristics of French-speaking countries; and second, to improve students' French language skills.Comprising 32 two-hour lessons, the course is offered to students enrolled in the bilingual 'Business English and French' programme who demonstrate high proficiency in English and an intermediate level of French.All the lessons were conducted by the first author, a novice CLIL French teacher who had neither attended nor taught a CLIL course previously.She is a native speaker of Mandarin and Shanghainese (L1s), and speaks English as a second language (L2) and French as a third language (L3).She also had prior experience of learning Japanese and Spanish (LOs).Since this was the first time she had prepared a CLIL course the teacher was confronted by many of the aforementioned problems during lesson preparation, such as a lack of ready-made teaching materials, a lack of content knowledge, limited time for preparation, and limited language proficiency among students.Taking the role of participant-researcher, the teacher adopted translanguaging approaches to address these challenges (Lin & He, 2017).

Data collection
Several types of data were collected to investigate the teacher's translanguaging practices during the preparation of the CLIL courses.These included: the teacher's 28 course planning and design documents; teaching materials, including 29 PowerPoint presentations and 24 handouts for students; and 272 other multimodal documents that the teacher had consulted or used during the planning process.After reflecting on her lesson preparation process, the teacher identified the various stages of course preparation (see Figure 2).She was then asked to provide written responses to open-ended questions concerning her use of languages during different stages and the roles of multiple languages.The answers were first given in Mandarin and then translated into English by the first author.The two other authors carefully verified the accuracy of translation.

Data collection
The data analysis was conducted in three phases.The first phase comprised a general frequency analysis of translanguaging practices.To facilitate the counting process, we conducted an analysis based on the frequency of use of different languages without neglecting the conceptualisation of translanguaging as a softening of languages' boundaries.The usage of each language was counted based on its presence in the documents; that is, if L1 was used in one document, we noted one instance of usage for L1.This use of different languages was then classified into four groups according to their distribution in each document: majority use (one language being used most of the time), exclusive use (only one language used), supportive use (amounting to a language being used in more than one paragraph), and sporadic use (only single words or short sentences used).
The second phase of analysis involved a textual analysis of all the documents.The roles of translanguaging practices in texts were examined according to the text structures, such as title, main body, and specific language forms such as translation, explanation and linguistic landscapes.All three authors separately completed the classification of language uses using the same tables.An interrater reliability check was carried out to confirm the objectivity of the results.
The third phase took the form of a thematic analysis (Mayring, 2000) of the teacher's reflective reports.After reading through the written reflective data, we collected all the sentences related to the research topic.The authors then coded different roles using brief descriptions such as 'facilitate meaning-making'.Each author's qualitative analysis was also re-examined by the other co-authors.

Distribution of translanguaging practices
Through quantitative analysis, we obtained an overall picture of the use of each language.During the first stage of course preparation, translanguaging practices included the use of L1, L2, L3 and LOs.As the graph below indicates, L3 appeared most frequently with 198 occurrences, including 179 uses of the French spoken in France and 19 uses of other varieties of French such as Swiss French.35.4% of these practices were characterised by the majority use of French, and 53.5% by the exclusive use of French.The use of French in a supportive role and the sporadic use of French respectively occupied 4% and 7.1% of all L3 practices.L3's use was followed in frequency by the use of L1, with 131 occurrences in total, including 127 occurrences of Mandarin Chinese and 4 occurrences of the Translanguaging in a French-medium CLIL course... Shanghainese dialect.15.3% of these practices constituted majority use, and 33.6% exclusive use.In contrast to L3, more L1 uses (46.5%) were supportive in nature, and only 4.6% of L1 occurrences met the definition of sporadic use.Meanwhile, L2 was used as the main language in 28 documents, as a supportive language in 10 documents, and sporadically in 11 documents.17 LOs (such as Japanese, standard Arabic and Cambodian) appeared in 34 documents.These languages were used as a main language in 12 documents, with only one exclusive use.They were used sporadically in 20 documents and supportively in 7 documents.

Figure 3. Distribution of language use during the first stage
During the second stage of course preparation, translanguaging practices became much less diverse (see Figure 4).All of the preparation documents at this stage used L3 as the main language.L1 was used as a supportive language in 27 documents and sporadically in one document.L2 appeared sporadically in 13 documents.In the PowerPoint presentations, L3 appeared as the main language accompanied by other languages in all 29 documents.L1s appeared as a supportive language in 11 documents and sporadically in 19 documents.L2 played a supportive role in four documents and a sporadic role in another four documents.Two LOs appeared in one document each.Finally, other teaching materials were selected from the documents that the teacher consulted during the first stage of preparation.The distribution of the use of different languages is similar to that observed in the first stage of course preparation.

Roles of translanguaging practices
After reviewing the distribution of translanguaging practices, we examined the roles of these practices through quantitative and qualitative analysis.

Informative and meaning-making roles during the first stage of course preparation.
The distribution of roles of translanguaging practices in the first stage of course preparation, as identified through quantitative data analysis, is shown in Figure 6.44% of L1 use was involved in the delivery of primary content, while 39% contributed to translation.The use of L1 for vocabulary or sentence explanation and the presentation of basic knowledge respectively constituted 8.5% and 7.1% of L1 use.L1 also appeared in the form of examples (1.4%).As for L2 use, 70% was in the delivery of primary content and 20% for translation.L2 was also used in the form of examples (7.5%), and was only used once in the form of linguistic landscapes appearing in a video.The majority of L3 use (89.6%) was in the delivery of primary content.Other L3 practices involved translation, examples, linguistic landscapes and song lyrics.68% of LO use was in communicating primary content, 10.5% was in linguistic landscapes and 21.5% was in the form of song lyrics.These results indicate that the primary roles of translanguaging practices at this stage are communicating information (delivery of primary content and basic knowledge) and facilitating meaning-making (translation, explanation and example).
Translanguaging in a French-medium CLIL course...During the second stage the teacher prepared a number of teaching plan documents.Textually speaking, these documents are composed of five main parts: titles, teaching objectives, subtitles, main body, and complementary information.The use of different languages in each of these parts is summarised in the following table.Lesson titles were given in both L1 and L3 in all documents.There was not necessarily a semantic equivalence between the titles in the two languages.L1 was the only language used to describe the teaching objectives.Three languages (L1, L2, and L3) appeared in subtitles in several combinations.
In the main text, three languages appeared in various forms.L1 was used for vocabulary or sentence explanation in 20 documents, for translation in nine documents, and for the description of related content in eight documents.L1 was also used to describe course processes in 14 documents.L3 was used not only for main content, but also for transitions between steps, such as in the introduction to a new lesson.L3 also appeared in the form of instructions for students in 21 documents, course processes in 12 documents, vocabulary or sentence explanations in 12 documents, examples in 10 documents, and descriptions of related content in 14 documents.In the main text, L2 was only used twice: once for vocabulary explanation, and once for providing related content knowledge.The teacher also added complementary information written in L1 and L3 in five documents.

November 2023
The above findings illustrate the roles of translanguaging practices in providing information (such as 'description of related content'), communicating instructions (such as 'transition between steps'), and facilitating meaning-making (explanation and translation).
Informative and meaning-making roles during the third stage of course preparation.
During the third stage, three types of materials were prepared.The components of the PowerPoint documents included titles, subtitles, outlines, main text, and homework.All of the PowerPoint documents used both L1 and L3 for titles and subtitles.The titles of the lessons were the same as those in the teaching preparation documents.Unlike the titles, where the content in the two languages did not necessarily share the same meaning, the subtitles in L1 and L3 were generally direct translations.L1 was used exclusively on slides providing outlines.In the main texts, L1, L2, L3 and LOs were all present to varying degrees.L1s were used for course presentation, vocabulary and sentence explanation, translation, giving examples, referring to related content, and giving a summary of the course.L3, which was present in the main texts of all documents, was used for vocabulary, sentence or grammar explanation, and giving examples.L2 appeared in the form of related content and grammar explanation.LOs appeared only twice, once in the form of a picture, and once in the form of an example.
The handouts prepared for students were written only in L1 and L3.As with the titles in the PowerPoint presentations and teaching preparation documents, all the titles of the lessons used both L1 and L3.However, the subtitles were written only in L3.The texts were mainly written in L3, while L1 appeared in eight documents for vocabulary or sentence explanation, concept explanation, related content description, and reference citation.
In terms of other teaching materials, L1 practices were limited to the delivery of primary content and translation.L2 use was limited to translations and song lyrics.L3 practices appeared in the form of primary content and translations.LO practices often appeared in the form of song lyrics and linguistic landscapes.

Results from quantitative data
The teacher's reflective reports offer detailed explanations of her translanguaging practices during the different stages of course preparation.

Informative, emotional, instructional and ideological roles during the first stage of course preparation.
The teacher reported consulting teaching reference materials in which L1 was used to obtain quick access to content knowledge.As she said: [1] It was my first time teaching this type of course, and I had only a summer vacation to prepare this course.Because of the short time and the lack of knowledge in specific domains, I had to consult documents in Chinese and in French.The input in Chinese enabled me to quickly become familiar with the themes in which I was interested.By using my L1, I could get familiar with these themes within one or two days.(T-1) Second, the teacher argued that translations into L1 of documents written or spoken in French or English increased her confidence in her teaching.Because French was a foreign language to the teacher, she needed to verify her understanding of documents in French, Translanguaging in a French-medium CLIL course... especially for content with which she was not familiar.The presence of a Chinese translation helped her verify her understanding and further improved her future instructional confidence.
Third, the teacher claimed that her emotional experience when receiving information through L1 helped her connect more deeply with the content.In her words: [2] When I consulted Chinese documents, I felt more emotionally involved in the content.For example, when I read documents about genocides in Rwanda, I felt more sad when reading in my mother language.For some African countries, Chinese presenters sometimes talked about the relationship between China and these countries, which really increased my interest on these countries.Moreover, some presenters presented using a lot of Chinese humour, which increased my enjoyment in preparing the lesson.(T-2) From the quote above, it is not difficult to observe the role of L1 in enhancing the teacher's emotional bond with the teaching content.This emotional experience not only involved the teacher in the content, but also helped her to build a stronger connection with the countries being discussed.
The teacher described her use of L2 as having two main functions: quick access to content, and the accumulation of bilingual vocabulary.Similar to L1, L2 was used by the teacher to access the content more quickly, especially where there was a lack of information distributed in L1 and L3.For the second purpose, the teacher stated that as the students were enrolled in a bilingual programme in which English and French were learned at the same time, instructionally speaking, it was important for them to develop bilingual vocabulary.It was for this reason that the teacher read English teaching reference materials during the course preparation process.
The teacher described two instructional objectives for the use of L3 apart from access to content knowledge.The first was to become familiar with the French vernacular.Although French is a language that the first author has learned and used for many years, being a non-native French speaker and novice CLIL teacher made her feel the need to read French materials and learn more French expressions in specific domains.Reading more in French helped the teacher to avoid translating from Chinese to French while speaking, which slows down oral production.The second objective was material selection.Given that there are no textbooks for this kind of course, the teacher needed to find authentic documents in French that could serve as appropriate materials for students.
The teacher also consulted documents in which LOs were present, such as an Arabic song, dialogues in Wolof, and poetry written in Haitian Creole.According to the teacher's reports, these documents using LOs enabled her to develop multilingual and multicultural awareness.As she said: [3] Before preparing this course, I was more interested in documents written or spoken in French.However, after encountering multiple other languages in a variety of documents, I was really surprised by the cultural complexity and linguistic diversity in When asked about her reasons for using translanguaging practices and their roles during the second phase of course preparation, the teacher explained the use of L1 for titles November 2023 by citing the emotional objective of sharing her love for her mother tongue.The teacher's undergraduate major was Chinese language and literature.This background encouraged her to provide poetic Chinese titles for lessons.In addition, the use of L1 to describe teaching objectives can be attributed in part to the teacher's past teaching habits and experience.During her previous teaching of Chinese, the teacher was accustomed to writing the teaching objectives in L1.According to the teacher, writing the teaching objectives in her native language, Mandarin, also accelerated the pedagogical design of the course, because it allowed her to concentrate more on the design process without any concerns about the accuracy of the French expressions.In the main texts, L1 was also used to remind her of the course process.The teacher described this approach as follows: [4] If I read a document written in English, French and Chinese, the first information that I will receive is surely that written in Chinese.As a novice CLIL teacher, I am afraid of forgetting the activities that I designed for this course.Writing the course process in Chinese reassured me a lot.(T-5) Based on this statement, we note that L1 clearly has a role in reducing the anxiety of this novice CLIL teacher by providing easy reminders of the course process.
During this stage, L3 occupied the largest space in all the documents.Along with the main content written in French, the teacher reported that vocabulary explanation in simple French and giving examples in French not only facilitated the teacher's own better use of French expressions before class, but also served as a pedagogical tool to promote students' lexical understanding in class if necessary.L3 also appeared in complementary information, mainly in familiarising the teacher with French expressions relevant to the course content.
It should be reiterated that L3 includes French spoken in French-speaking countries other than France.The teacher noted the importance of demonstrating different types of French to students: [5] Many Chinese students learn French just for future use of French in France.They do not understand the variation that is present in French, and that all these French languages should share equal status.Another reason this is important is that the Chinese government has recently launched the Belt and Road Initiative, which needs a lot of French language talents who might be able to communicate with local people in French-speaking countries in Africa.So it is essential to know about French variation.(T-4) These ideologies related to language equality and national interest encouraged the teacher to introduce to her students the idea that French is spoken differently in different countries.

Emotional, aesthetic, instructional, informative and meaning-making roles during the third stage of course preparation.
When describing translanguaging practices in the PowerPoint presentations and documents she prepared for her students, the teacher again noted that the use of L1 for the titles in both types of materials could been seen as an emotional demonstration of her love for the 'charm' of the Chinese language as well as her identity as a former student of ancient Chinese.The teacher explained the use of L1 in outlines and subtitles in PowerPoints as an aesthetic choice; she found the exclusive use of Chinese more visually comfortable than using two languages side by side.Taking Picture 1 as an example, the outline that the teacher provided was '看画,读画,听画,说画' ('watch painting', 'read painting', 'listen Translanguaging in a French-medium CLIL course... to painting', 'talk about painting').In the Chinese language, the use of four words each composed of two characters as an outline makes the lesson more organised and logical.In the main texts of the PowerPoints and handouts prepared for the students, L1 was mainly used to explain key vocabulary or sentences and to translate French examples.The teacher believed that this practice would reduce students' anxiety about their limited vocabulary, and save students the time it would take to consult dictionaries in class.In the PowerPoints she also saw this practice as helping to reduce the time that she herself would need to write notes on the blackboard, and to avoid written errors.
L1 was also used to give examples in the lesson on 'Creole in Haiti'.During this lesson the teacher intended to present the phenomenon of language contact, discussing the characteristics of Haitian Creole and its linguistic status.Since the hometown of the teacher and of half the students was Shanghai, the teacher planned to introduce the concept of creole languages to the students by demonstrating a different but related phenomenon of language contact, namely the birth of a pidgin language.Thus, the teacher prepared a list of Shanghainese words borrowed from English for discussion in class.The teacher believed that understanding this phenomenon as it was taking place in the students' daily life in Shanghai might later facilitate their understanding of new linguistic phenomena (Lin, 2015).L1 was also used in some of the assignments as described in the PowerPoint presentations, because the teacher was worried about students' misunderstanding the homework.

Picture 1. Example of outlines in a PowerPoint slide
The use of different languages in other teaching materials similarly served instructional purposes.The selection of documents which used L1 had several purposes.First, it was intended to enable students to quickly become familiar with various French-speaking countries and develop their interest in the culture of those countries.Second, translation to L1 helped to guarantee the students' understanding of French materials and improve the reception of information presented in L3 in class.Third, as stated above, through connections between the L1 culture and language phenomena and those of the target countries, learners were able to deepen their understanding of cross-cultural phenomena and better understand their own culture via comparison with others.Finally, the teacher also used her own Mandarin-language November 2023 writing about her travels in a French-speaking country as complementary reading material with the purpose of arousing students' interest in the country discussed.
The teacher offered presentation videos in English where there was a lack of relevant Chinese or French materials, and also for the instructional purpose of helping the students quickly access content knowledge and accumulate bilingual vocabulary.For example, when designing the lesson about Haitian Creole, the teacher thought that using an English presentation with some French examples would be better than a French presentation because it made the content easier to understand for the English major students, who had already acquired a lot of linguistic vocabulary in English.Moreover, the teacher planned to play the English song 'Casablanca' in class during the lesson on Morocco to share her personal passion for the song and the movie of the same name.Meanwhile, French materials were mainly used for instructional purposes, i.e. to improve students' French listening and reading abilities by increasing the amount of French-language material they were exposed to.The explanations of vocabulary or sentences in French were aimed at facilitating students' meaning-making and vocabulary learning.In addition, LO materials, mainly in form of song lyrics and pictures, were selected in order to allow the students to gain a sense of the linguistic and cultural diversity of French-speaking countries.

dIscussIon
In summary, the results not only demonstrate a wide variety of translanguaging practices during different stages of teaching preparation, but also reflect the changing roles of these practices during the preparation process and their potential roles in the future classroom context.The findings are summarised in the following figure.Different colours refer to different languages while the size of columns marked by L1, L2, L3 and LOs reflect the relative frequency of translanguaging practices.

Figure 7. Translanguaging practices during different stages of teaching preparation
Translanguaging in a French-medium CLIL course...One of the significant contributions of the present study is its characterisation of the ongoing dynamic and fluid translanguaging practices which take place during the preparation of a CLIL course.In contrast to previous studies (e.g.Karabassova & San Isidro, 2020), which have focused primarily on the use of L1 and employed an analytical perspective viewing translanguaging as static, this study adopts a flexible perspective that views translanguaging as a dynamic flow (Lin, 2019) and extends the study of translanguaging practices from L1 to L2 and L3 as well as LOs.For example, we found that translanguaging practices are highly diverse in the pre-design phase, during which the teacher actively or passively received information in different languages, including 17 LOs.However, the languages used were reduced to L1, L2 and L3 during the design preparation phase.During the presentation phase translanguaging practices became more limited in the documents prepared for students, in which only L1 and L3 were used.In PowerPoints and other teaching materials presented in class, however, translanguaging practices were renewed with a variety of different languages.
The dynamic flow of translanguaging is seen not only in the languages used, but also by the different roles of translanguaging in different stages.Taking L1 as an example, during the pre-design phase the teacher values L1 because it facilitates her access to content knowledge, assists her meaning-making, increases her teaching confidence and strengthens her emotional bond with the course content.In the design phase L1 serves to affirm the teacher's identity, reduce her teaching anxiety as a novice teacher, accelerate the course design and remind her of teaching processes.In the presentation phase L1 is believed by the teacher to play new roles in the classroom by demonstrating the teacher's identity, promoting learning efficiency by saving time for both teachers and students, and facilitating students' meaning-making, among others.
Another major contribution of the present study is its enrichment of Lin's (2015) framework by extending it into third-language and CLIL teaching contexts, particularly focusing on course preparation.Inspired by Lin's (2015) description of the diverse functions of L1 use, we further modify this framework based on the context of CLIL courses to categorise the various functions of translanguaging practices observed in this study in terms of their functions for content and language learning, functions for classroom organisation, and socioemotional functions.

Roles during the preparation phase
Potential roles in the classroom context Functions for content and language learning

Functions for classroom organisation
-Mark textual transitions.
-Remind the techer of course procesees.
-Facilitate transitions in the classroom.
-Promote classroom and task management.
-Remind students of homework.
-Strengthen emotional ties with the content.
-Reduce the anxiety associated with being a novice teacher.
-Share personal feelings.
-Demonstrate the charm of the Chinese language.
-Develop students's interest in content learning.As shown in the figure above, concerning the functions of content and language learning, our study echoes previous research on the potential functions of translanguaging in facilitating students' access to content knowledge (e.g.Karabassova & San Isidro, 2020), facilitating meaning-making (e.g.Bieri, 2018) and enhancing linguistic awareness (e.g.Coyle, 2013).However, these findings are based on the teacher's expectations and need to be verified in the context of a real classroom.In addition to these findings, our research also notes that the use of different languages can facilitate the teacher's access to content knowledge, improve the teacher's understanding of content knowledge, help the teacher to become familiar with the vernacular in the language being taught, facilitate bilingual vocabulary building and develop the teacher's multilingual and multicultural awareness.
In line with previous findings (Shin et al., 2019), our research highlights translanguaging's potential roles in classroom organisation, including facilitating transition in class, reminding students of homework, and promoting classroom and task management.Our study also confirms the roles of translanguaging in course planning and preparation tasks such as marking textual transitions, enhancing the aesthetic value of documents, accelerating course design, and reminding the teacher of course processes.
In the category of socio-emotional functions, our findings not only confirm the roles of L1 in identity confirmation (Lin & He, 2017) and emotional expression (Vázquez & Ordóñez, 2019), but also identify new possible functions of translanguaging practices, including increasing teaching confidence, demonstrating identity, reducing teacher anxiety, and developing learners' interest.These findings confirm the positive value of translanguaging in a CLIL context.All these results not only contribute by filling existing gaps in the research on translanguaging practices during course preparation, but also propose some directions for future research on translanguaging practices in the classroom context.

conclusIon
In conclusion, based on the frequency and thematic analysis of documents generated in one French teacher's CLIL course preparation and the teacher's self-reported perceptions regarding the use and the roles of translanguaging practices, this research has not only documented the dynamic flow of translanguaging practices in the process of designing content and third language integrated learning courses, but also identified multiple functions of L1, L2, L3 and LOs in CLIL contexts.However, we should acknowledge the limitations of this study.Specifically, due to the focus on course preparation, our investigation is based on document analysis and self-reports from a single teacher.Students' perceptions of translanguaging practices in the classroom need to be taken into consideration in future research.Although caution needs to be exercised when generalising the findings of this case study to different contexts, the translanguaging practices observed in this CLIL course could enrich theoretical perspectives on translanguaging and inform LOTE teachers, especially novice teachers involved in CLIL classrooms using translanguaging pedagogies.

November 2023 Figure 1 .
Figure 1.The functions of L1 in CLIL classrooms revealed in previous literature

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. Process of course preparation

Figure 4 .Figure 5 .
Figure 4. Distribution of language use during the second stageThe third stage included the preparation of three types of learning materials for students: handouts, PowerPoint presentations, and other multimodal teaching materials.As the following graph demonstrates, the translanguaging practices in the handouts involved the use of only two languages, L1 and L3.L1 was used as a supportive language in eight documents and appeared sporadically in two documents.

Figure 6 .
Figure 6.Roles of different languages during the first stage Informative, meaning-making and instructional roles during the second stage of course preparation.During the second stage the teacher prepared a number of teaching plan documents.Textually speaking, these documents are composed of five main parts: titles, teaching objectives, subtitles, main body, and complementary information.The use of different languages in each of these parts is summarised in the following table.
French-speaking countries.I noticed an ideological change in my mind; I felt more open to other cultures and other languages.(T-3) Emotional, pedagogical and ideological roles during the second stage of course preparation.

Figure 8 .
Figure 8.Multiple functions of translanguaging practices in a CLIL course

Table 2 .
Use of languages in TP documents