Dictogloss or Processing Instruction: Which Works Better on EFL Learners’ Writing Accuracy?

Although many investigations have been carried out into the consequence of applying different approaches to teaching writing, there is still a lack of the empirical comparing research into two influential focus-on-form methods of generating writing accuracy. This study is therefore significant as it is the very first study that compares the relative effects of the two instructional interventions of dictogloss and processing instruction on EFL learners’ writing accuracy. To achieve the abovementioned aim, 56 teenage Iranian participants with elementary level English were homogenized and selected out of 90 learners at a language school, using the results of a piloted sample Key English Test (KET). These participants were randomly divided into two experimental groups with 28 participants in each: one a dictogloss and the other a processing instruction group. A writing test was administered as a pretest to homogenize these participants regarding writing accuracy and then in one group dictogloss tasks and in the other processing instruction tasks were practiced through 8 sessions. A picture sequence writing task was administered as a posttest at the end of the treatments to both groups. Finally the mean scores of both groups on the posttest were compared through an independent samples t-test. The result rejected the null hypothesis demonstrating that dictogloss, through a mixture of collaborative factors in the teaching and learning process, could significantly motivate the participants who outperformed the processing instruction group regarding their writing accuracy.


IntroductIon
Communication is a process by which people express or exchange their ideas, thoughts, feelings, and information. People can communicate with each other in two forms, one is written and the other is verbal. Conveying or sharing something through the written form is termed writing. Not only does the competence of writing represent the graphic of speech, but it also helps learners convey their thoughts through words in a meaningful and structured way.
The complexity of writing is the reason it is considered as the most difficult of the four skills (Nosratinia & Razavi, 2016). As an example, writing demands more competence than speaking because the writer cannot receive instant comments from addressees. So learners should aim to continuously improve their writing accuracy in order to make their work as understandable and efficient as possible. According to Harris (1965) writing accuracy includes using accurate form, grammar, sentence structure and words. From this point of view, accuracy in writing is extremely sophisticated and requires the employment of appropriate innovations in teaching which includes writing and more specifically grammar, the central factor of writing accuracy, as its main parts. It is also admitted by Pertiwi, Ngadiso, and Drajati (2018) that for the sake of unintelligible and uncommunicative activities in learning writing, a component teacher should apply instructional methods to encourage students to utilize their own concepts in order to construct a legible and comprehensible text. One of the ways is by applying a dictogloss technique.
Although dictation is thought of as a bygone educational tool, it could be efficacious if it is applied to an appropriate technique of instruction (Onovughe & Olubunmi, 2018). Dictogloss, which Wajnryb borrowed from dictation for the first time, has triumphed as one of the most effective, fun, and non-threatening ways to have learners cooperate in exploring meaning-making through language and linguistics at the same time (Smith, 2011, p. 69). Students are trained to write appropriate paragraphs while interacting with their friends during this learning (Pertiwi et al., 2018). Smith (2011) also states that dictogloss improves communicative proficiency by using key skills (listening, reading, writing, and speaking), although its focus is mainly on grammar. Wajnryb (1995) clarifies that dictogloss includes the four phases of preparation, dictation, reconstruction, and analysis accompanied by correction. He also explains that through these phases, learners prepare themselves for some vocabularies by understanding the topic, note down key words as they listen to a short passage, then cooperate with each other to generate a reconstructed form of the text, and in the final phase, these reconstructed forms 265 are closely analyzed and compared with the original text. Thence according to Smith (2011) in dictogloss "listening is the input, that is the material, speaking is the communication tool, and writing is both the input and the output, or the product" (p. 69).
Dictogloss helps learners construct a linguistically acceptable output text which is related to the one read to learners before. Learners have made some notes about both content and style, but it is not just a copy of the original text because learners involve their records, their various perceptions in groups, and their prior information to construct a text (Kooshafar, Youhanaee, and Amirian, 2012). Hence, learners cannot reconstruct the text without considering grammar, forms, meanings, and spellings. Accordingly, Smith (2011) proved that through this learners' consideration and also their comparison with the original text, dictogloss can promote accuracy in writing.
Dictogloss is proved as an output-oriented focus-on-form technique (Qin, 2008;Rashtchi & Khosroabadi, 2009;Abbasian & Minagar, 2012). Kowal and Swain (as cited in Kondo, Sano, Tashiro, Noguchi, Kogure, Konishi, and Itoh, 2010) explained that through dictogloss, learners discuss form-meaning/form-function relations in their target language to reconstruct the original text as an output. In other words, dictogloss gives learners the opportunity to raise their consciousness about the use of target language in their writing. Along with dictogloss as a collaborative consciousness-raising focus-on-form task that enhances writing development, processing instruction is the other type of task which possesses these characteristics and is a noteworthy method of teaching writing accuracy.
Bill Vanpatten recommended processing instruction in 1996 as a modern language instructional technique that teaches input-based grammar (Abbasian & Minagar, 2012). Vanpatten (2004) indicates that learners' input-processing functions often prevent them from processing input correctly or taking care of target language-producing structures, and in consequence, processing instruction makes L2 students change for the better their usual incorrect processing functions through some form-meaning mapping exercises (structured input activities) and internalize intake (Qin, 2008).
Processing instruction is completely counter to classical instruction, which consists of drills in which learner output is manipulated and instruction is divorced from meaning or communication (Lee & Benati, 2009, p.39). Processing instruction, by contrast, is a communicative form-focused technique that is purposed to make students improve form-meaning associations in the information they get (Lee & Benati, 2009). According to Morgan-Short and Bowden (2006), processing instruction has three components in order to create these connections for learners: "(a) explicit, non-paradigmatic grammatical instruction (i.e., forms and relevant examples presented sequentially) that includes input through examples and information about a processing strategy, (b) structured input practice composed of meaningful activities (both oral and written, and referential and affective), and (c) feedback" (p. 33).
As pointed out earlier, processing instruction is a way of dealing with language structure in which the primary center is to assist students to advance their inner linguistics framework. Harris (1965) has proved that writing accuracy is based on structure items, grammatical forms of language, and teachers' feedback towards students' linguistic and grammatical errors. Therefore, it can be concluded that processing instruction, which has these features, is, like dictogloss, a noteworthy technique in writing instruction.
In line with the abovementioned discussion about the strain of writing among the four skills and the fact that both strategies, processing instruction and dictogloss, were separately useful techniques for developing EFL learners' writing ability (Smith, 2011;Kooshafar et al., 2012;Hashemnezhad & Khalili Zangalani, 2012;Pertiwi et al., 2018;Modirkhamene, Pouyan, Alavinia, 2018), the present study has aimed to compare the general impacts of these two instructional treatment on EFL learners' writing accuracy.
First of all, finding the benefits of each of these focus-on-form techniques in this study was an approval of the convenience of focus-on-form methods mainly, as students are focused on target structures as long as they are engaged with meaningful exercises (Qin, 2008). This finding could also give insights to teachers who are seeking more practical and efficient techniques to teach the target form and grammar in writing. This investigation, at this level, has been considered to make a significant presence in the effect of grammar instruction and writing accuracy in an EFL background. Hence, the outcome of this investigation may have some instructional effects for EFL teachers, syllabus designers, and students. Accordingly, the following hypothesis was stated: H 0 : There is no significant difference between the effect of dictogloss and processing instruction tasks on EFL learners' writing accuracy.

Participants
The participants in this study were studying English at Parsayan language school, Tehran, for at least three years. Thirty male and female teenaged students, between thirteen and sixteen years old, at the elementary level of language proficiency, were selected from this school to pilot the KET test. Fifty-six participants out of ninety, who had performed the same characteristics as those thirty students and scored one standard deviation above or one standard deviation below the mean, were selected through the KET language proficiency test which was previously piloted. Then fifty-six learners were randomly divided into two experimental groups of twenty-eight.

Instrumentations and materials
The following instrumentations were used in order to gather data in this study:

Key English Test (KET)
A sample KET was administered to homogenize the participants' level of language proficiency. Obviously, it was first piloted among thirty participants who had scored the same characteristics as real participants of the research. After that, the test was administered to real participants in order to choose learners who scored one standard deviation above or one standard deviation below the mean for this research.

Pretest
A writing test was administered at the beginning of instruction as a pretest. Participants were required to write twelve sentences about six sequence pictures in the simple present tense while including some specific words (a/an, some/any, at/on/in, usually/sometimes/always/ never, first/then/after that/next/finally). The total time of this test was forty-five minutes.

Posttest
A writing test was administered at the end of the instruction as a posttest. Participants were required to write twelve sentences about six sequence pictures in the simple present tense while including some specific words (a/an/some/any, at/on/in, usually/sometimes/always/ never, first/then/after that/next/finally). The total time of this test was forty-five minutes.

Coursebook
The main coursebook used for both groups was "Hey There 1" by Morales, Myer, and Lynam (2009). This is an English language course, which is categorized into four levels, and is suitable for teenagers. It guarantees a fruitful educational environment by: practical writing rules that students immediately apply, an inclusive source of grammar that can be learnt even without the assistance of a teacher or a tutor, a continuous way for evaluating learners' development, subjects and investigation exercises that interface the educational environment with reality, a variety of educational subjects that connect English to other domains of knowledge, studying about different cultures, and exercises in the end that individualize and widen studying out of the educational environment.

Dictogloss texts
Eight texts of the appropriate level of difficulty for participants of the dictogloss group were selected from different sources in the present study. They were covered in eight sessions of the course. They were related to the main coursebook in terms of subject and grammatical structures.

Processing instruction structured input activities
Four types of structured input activities, each having four sections, which were related to the main coursebook in terms of subject and grammatical structures were constructed based on Lee and Vanpatten's (1995) structured input activities. The last section text of each type was the same as the dictogloss text in the same session. These activities were covered through eight sessions of the course.

Procedure
The following steps were taken in order to fulfill the aim of this study during the research process.

268
At first, a sample test of KET was piloted with 30 female and male participants of the same age and language proficiency as the target sample, where the reliability of the test was estimated and item analysis was performed. After applying necessary changes, the KET was used to homogenize a group of 90. Fifty-six qualified participants were chosen out of 90. These qualified participants were selected based on their total scores, which were one standard deviation above or one standard deviation below the mean. They were randomly divided into two experimental groups of 28, one dictogloss and the other processing instruction. Before the beginning of the research, a writing test was administered as a pretest to homogenize these participants regarding writing accuracy which included spelling, grammar instruction, and punctuation in this research. Since the participants were at the elementary level, they were not able to consider coherency. All of fifty-six participants were able to obtain scores between one standard deviation above and below the mean, so they were accepted as the main participants of this study. Then they were divided into 4 classes with 14 students in each. Due to the regulation of language school, the researcher was not allowed to have more than fifteen students in each class. In two of these classes, dictogloss task and other processing instruction task were supplied.
Since the researcher was required to adapt the treatments to the main syllabus of the course, she decided to present the treatment in eight sessions out of a fifteen-session course for each experimental group. The learners did not know that they were under the treatment but were told that they would have more writing practice. Hence, tasks were introduced to participants in each group in the first session. The grammar sections of two units (a/an/ some/any, at/on/in, usually/sometimes/always/never, first/then/after that/next/finally), which were required to be taught in accordance with the language school syllabus, were taught in both experimental groups. Both dictogloss texts and processing instruction structured-input activities were based on the subjects of these two units.
In the first step, where both groups were involved, the researcher provided students with new vocabularies, chose a topic related to main coursebook and talked about it in 4-5 sentences which including new words and the specific grammar point. They then started to ask questions about the topic including the main grammatical point in order to involve students in the topic and also the grammatical point.
In the processing instruction group, the participants got unequivocal guidance in the target structures. The students, in the first step, were given some clear and detailed information, which was completely explained in the grammar section of the coursebook, about the place and the time that target structures are utilized. At that point, they were given some methods and notices to inform them about issues they might experience. After unequivocal guidance was provided about the target structures, the participants were occupied with structured-input activities that motivated the students to make form-meaning mappings. Overall, four exercises were intended for each grammatical fact; two of them were referential and two of them were effective. Referential activities need learners to locate the right answer out of conceivable different choices whereas affective activities depend on learners' sentiments or thoughts regarding a specific topic in the activity. Three activities out of four were required be answered in written form, with especially the last activity written on paper and corrected individually by the researcher. The students' writings were corrected in terms of writing accuracy, which in this study was spelling, grammar instruction, and punctuation. It is worth mentioning that the vocabularies utilized in the exercises were appropriate for the learners' level in English.
In the dictogloss group, eight texts were used during eight sessions. They included the same grammatical points and subjects as in the processing instruction group. Vocabularies were suitable for the learners' levels in English and new words were taught before starting the dictation. After a warm-up, which was used for both treatments, students were placed in groups, and before each level of the procedure, they were informed about what they would do at this level. Texts were read two times for learners by the instructor at normal speed but the pauses between sentences were a little longer. Students wrote down some points while listening during the second reading. After the dictation, they began working in groups to recreate the original text. They discussed and used all their notes in order to let one individual in the group compose their version of the text based on the negotiation of the group. After the completion of the text, the group checked it for grammar, spelling, and punctuation. The researcher did no more than unobtrusively point out small unimportant errors during reconstruction. After around thirty minutes, they gave their writings to the researcher. The researcher did not correct the learners' texts (none of the errors related to the content or the form) while commenting on them. In order to allow the learners to correct their errors by themselves through comparing texts, the researcher just provided some clues by highlighting errors and returning writings along with the original text. In this way, the learners comprehended any lack of appropriate vocabularies, grammar or even organization of context indirectly. The focus of the feedback was mainly on grammatical points, spelling, and punctuation.
At the end of both treatments, the participants were given a writing test as a posttest. The participants' writings in the posttest and pretest were evaluated only by the researcher. Since the study did not include coherency as a part of writing accuracy, there was no disagreement on students' errors. But the participants' writings in the KET were evaluated by two raters, including the researcher, who were experienced in teaching English for four and five years respectively and who had passed four half-an-hour rater training sessions in which raters discussed the mark scheme of the writing part and t-unit rating scale.

results
In this study, selecting participants had three phases. In the first phase, the researcher used thirty participants for piloting the KET, as a general English test, to be sure that the test could be used for the present study. The reliability estimate of the test was an acceptable Cronbach's Alpha index of 0.976. The inter-rater reliability of the two raters in the writing parts of KET was 0.768, which was significant at a 0.01 level.
After the administration of the KET among 90 participants, 56 candidates were selected with scores of one standard deviation above and below the mean. Then these candidates were randomly allocated to two trials of dictogloss and processing instruction which had 28 members. The homogeneousness of participants based on their writing accuracy was investigated by a writing test administered as a posttest which was scored by one rater because coherency was not included as a part of writing accuracy, so there was no disagreement on students' errors.
Subsequently, the pre-treatment writing of the two groups had to be checked. For a parametric t-test to be used legitimately, however, firstly, the normality condition of both sets of distribution was checked. Valid N (listwise) 28 As depicted in the tables, both distributions were normal as the ratios turned out to be less than 1.96. Therefore, the t-test was legitimate to run. The following tables show the results: As table 2 reveals, the mean of the two groups is very close (3.42, 3.35). Table 3 shows that the variances were equal (F=.007, p=.936>.05). Therefore, the first raw was utilized for the result of the t-test. As shown there, the distinction between the mean of these groups was not notable (t=.292, p=.772>.05), implying that the writing ability of the two groups prior to the intervention was almost the same. Hence, any possible significant difference in their posttest performances could safely be credited to the impact of the treatment. Figure  1 shows the difference between their means and standard deviations. To test the null hypothesis, the mean scores of the two groups' posttest were compared through a t-test. Primarily, however, the normality condition was verified through table 4 data information. As the table 4 shows, the skewness ratios for both abovementioned treatments are less than 1.96, hence, the normality of distribution of both sets of scores. Thus, the parametric t-test was legitimate to run. The following tables are the result:

Figure 1. Bar graph of the p-treatment writing scores of the two groups
To test the null hypothesis, the mean scores of the two groups' posttest were compared through a t-test. Primarily, however, the normality condition was verified through table 4 data information. Valid N (listwise) 28 As the table 4 shows, the skewness ratios for both abovementioned treatments are less than 1.96, hence, the normality of distribution of both sets of scores. Thus, the parametric t-test was legitimate to run. The following tables are the result: It appears in table 5 that the mean scores of the two groups show a difference (5.64 vs. 4.07). Table 6 shows if the difference was significant. As table 6 exhibits, the variances of the two sets of scores were not significantly different (F=2.24, p=.140<.05), and the result of the t-test depicted in the first raw indicates that the distinction of the two groups mean scores turned out to be significant (t=5.05, p=.000<.05). Thus, the null hypothesis was rejected, and by the data in table 5 which shows the supremacy of the dictogloss group, it is concluded that the treatment provided to this group improves the writing ability of the learners significantly more than the processing instruction group. To calculate the effect size, the information in table 7 drawn from the analysis of variance was utilized. Table 7 demonstrates that the partial eta squares value turned out to be .32, which expressed as percentage implies that 32 percent of the variation in the dependent variable could be described by the dependent variable, which according to Cohen (1988, p.22) is a small size.

DISCUSSION
This research results in the same discoveries as the findings of Jacobs and Small (2003), who revealed the positive effect of dictogloss on writing performance. As is proved by Smith (2011), this study also presented dictogloss as one of the most beneficial, enjoyable and non-menacing approaches towards making students collaborate to use language and linguistics for investigating simultaneous meaning-making. As Smith (2011) notes, it can improve the ability to use target language by using all four skills of reading, listening, speaking, and especially writing, which is both the input and the output in this technique. It is observed as one of the specific approaches that make students motivated and enthusiastic in learning writing by getting ideas for writing in an easier fashion, and learning both lexicon and syntax in the context through the guidance of both the teacher and other learners.

dIscussIon
This research results in the same discoveries as the findings of Jacobs and Small (2003), who revealed the positive effect of dictogloss on writing performance. As is proved by Smith (2011), this study also presented dictogloss as one of the most beneficial, enjoyable and 274 non-menacing approaches towards making students collaborate to use language and linguistics for investigating simultaneous meaning-making. As Smith (2011) notes, it can improve the ability to use target language by using all four skills of reading, listening, speaking, and especially writing, which is both the input and the output in this technique. It is observed as one of the specific approaches that make students motivated and enthusiastic in learning writing by getting ideas for writing in an easier fashion, and learning both lexicon and syntax in the context through the guidance of both the teacher and other learners.
During dictogloss procedures learners are able to deal with the language through a cooperative writing activity. In line with Hang Nguyen (2017), the researcher also observed that through this collaboration, weaker learners were able to complete the activities, which were difficult to deal with in the absence of the abovementioned procedure in the first place, by learning from stronger ones who could actively lead and support the group. Cooperation also encouraged them to reflect on form and to take risks after thinking critically about their language use.
Writing demands more competence rather than other skills because of the absence of any prompt criticism by the addressee as a sort of clue in order to produce a clear, relevant, accurate, and informative text. Through dictogloss, learners' writings get immediate feedback from themselves, their group-mates, and also all of the class members, so that their writing strengths and weaknesses could be identified for producing better writing. Furthermore, as Smith (2011) mentioned, through dictogloss techniques. learners can be observed in real-time by the teacher and their writing skill evaluated during the process of writing, not just based on the finished product.
As was emphasized by Nguyen (2017), four levels of dictogloss need pre-teaching to prevent misunderstanding of the text. Therefore, the researcher carried out a rehearsal for training each level of dictogloss procedure, including the ability to take notes. Although that session was not sufficient for the learners, and they were still unfamiliar with the procedure in the first sessions of the main course, it prepared them to accept the long process of dictogloss during this research. Smith (2011) believes that dictogloss supports different types of learning, intellectual aptitudes, heterogeneous gatherings, synchronous interplay, and can be utilized as a substitute evaluation. It is seen as an appropriate method for students with different competencies as knowledge is shared; because doing the activities without communicating in English, which includes investigation into the form and signification of language, is impossible for students. Smith (2011) explains that a short text needs a short time, so dictogloss can be additionally a great revision activity or a group evaluation device in which students can be tested without getting anxious like when they are tested separately, and can share their learning as they think about the structure. In short, if it is executed correctly, dictogloss can be considered as both a teaching technique and a testing tool.

Limitations
In this study there were two limitations: all the participants in this study were teenagers since the researcher was not allowed to instruct other ages. Thus the result of this study may not be generalized to language learners from other ages.
Since the standard of the participants' linguistic proficiency was elementary in this research, the participants were not able to consider coherency as a part of writing accuracy. Hence, the researcher did not enjoy all the sections of writing accuracy.

Future research
Since this study had certain limitations which restricted it in some aspects, some topics are definitely open to be investigated in this regard. Therefore, during the consideration of this study the researcher came up with some suggestions in line with the present study for further research in the future: 1. In this study, the effect of dictogloss and processing instruction tasks was considered on writing accuracy comparatively. It would be interesting to compare the effect of dictogloss and processing instruction on other dimensions of writing, such as fluency or complexity. 2. This study was performed among teenage participants. Therefore, other studies with the same nature can be done among adult participants to consider whether age is also a factor. 3. Coherency, as a part of writing accuracy, was not considered in the present study based on the low standard of participants' linguistic proficiency. It would be a useful suggestion to include coherency in other studies to see the effect of dictogloss and processing instruction on it. 4. This study included a limited number of English grammatical features. Future researches can study the impact of dictogloss and processing instruction on more target grammatical features.

conclusIon
Although teaching writing through dictogloss seems promising theoretically, the challenge of applying it in practice is undeniable. The consequences of this research has some significant implications in writing accuracy teaching and syllabus designing for EFL learners. Some of these implications are demonstrated bellow.

Implications in teaching
According to the results of this study, it seems that dictogloss is a useful instructional technique that can help EFL learners improve their writing accuracy. Teachers can use dictogloss, as a collaborative instruction, to increase students' motivation in their own learning and consequently affect their groupmates' learning. In this way, they learn writing for meaning-making rather than writing as a skill, and all of the group members think critically in order to make that meaning on the paper. The teacher observes students during the writing process, and therefore, can assess their different abilities moment by moment, not just in the final product. This assessment can profit all learners because the whole class, in groups of two and three, are doing a similar assignment.
On the other hand, since dictogloss tasks cover all aspects of language, including listening, reading, writing, and speaking, they are valuable in teaching writing accuracy as well as completing exercises in language segments.

Implications in syllabus design
As stated before, most students consider speaking as a more important skill in learning a foreign language than writing. Syllabus designers can motivate learners to do writing tasks by including more dictogloss activities which totally involve them in reconstructing a text when they provide learners' needs and help them discover the things they do not learn, should learn and have learnt about the target language through their own experience.
On the other hand, in this research, the usefulness of dictogloss, as a focus-on-form technique, is an extra proof of the benefit of using focus-on-form methods in syllabus design, methods which make students pay attention to target structures while they are occupied with meaning-making exercises.